Investopedia

Day trading can be profitable for a select few, but the data suggests most traders will lose money.

Ever watched a TV series or a movie where a trader appears to make millions with just a few clicks of a mouse? That’s the Hollywood version of day trading—buying and selling securities within a single trading day. It’s easy to see why this approach has captured the imagination of so many people-who wouldn’t want to work market hours from home, be their own boss, and potentially earn millions?

But what’s the reality behind these depictions of success? Day trading can indeed be profitable, but it’s exceptionally challenging—and most people who try it end up losing money.

According to both academic and industry research, the success rate in day trading is quite low. Depending on the source, only around 3% to 20% of day traders make money. But that 20% estimate probably has as much to do with the time period studied—the dotcom bubble. It’s hard to know for sure, but it’s probably fair to say that up to 95% of day traders lose money.

So is day trading still worth pursuing? This article cuts through the hype to provide a practical guide for those considering entering this high-stakes arena.

Key Takeaways

• Day traders attempt to profit from intraday price moves and rarely hold positions overnight.
• The vast majority of day traders lose money.
• The factors that determine the potential upside of day trading include the limited amount of capital needed to get started, strategies used, markets chosen, and luck.
• Successful day traders are disciplined and stick with their strategy; they manage risk by using stop-loss orders and establishing profit-taking points.

Understanding Day Trading

Unlike investors who commit to long-term buy-and-hold positions or swing traders who might hold positions for days or weeks, day traders look to turn quick, small profits in a single trading day, liquidating all positions before the market close to protect against risks that could materialize overnight. They can hold positions for hours, minutes, and even seconds. Some trade once a day, while others can trade dozens or even hundreds of times a day.

Day traders attempt to exploit small price changes in highly liquid assets such as stocks, currencies, futures, or options. They use technical analysis as the basis of their trading system and leverage helps them increase their potential earnings (but it can also amplify their losses). Successful day trading demands in-depth market knowledge, swift decision-making, and access to real-time data.

Consider a hypothetical example: A day trader might start their morning looking at a stock that appears to be gapping higher on positive earnings news. They buy 500 shares at $50 and hope to sell at $51 (for a $500 profit). They set a stop-loss at $49.50. After holding for several minutes and seeing the price rise to $50.75, they might decide to exit with a $375 gross profit (before fees and taxes) before momentum fades.

Traders using different systems might trade make dozens or even hundreds of transactions in a day. This is why regulators created specific rules for so-called “pattern day traders“—anyone executing four or more day trades within five business days—requiring them to maintain at least $25,000 in their margin trading accounts.

Challenges and Risks

But why is day trading so challenging? First, it’s extremely difficult to predict price movements in such a short-term time frame. While swing traders or position trades can use established trends, and the buying of large institutions, to profit, intraday price movements are often driven more by news and emotion than trends.

Second, even a winning system will lead to consistent losses in the hands of a day trader with poor control of their emotions and impulses. The emotional and psychological biases inherent in human decision-making further complicate day trading, when important decisions must be made quickly.Overconfidence can lead to excessive risk-taking and overtrading, while loss aversion leads to poor decisions like selling winners to early and holding on to losers for far too long.

With the rise of algorithmic, high-frequency trading, amateur day traders are also now competing against professional firms with virtually unlimited resources and advanced technology—all while battling their own psychological biases like fear and greed.

Even if a trader has developed a winning system and mastered their emotions, they still have to overcome slippage and transaction costs and then pay taxes on whatever profits are left. Will they make enough money to live on and continue trading? Probably not.

Day Trading vs. Long-Term Investing
Aspect	Day Trading	Long-Term Investing
Time horizon	Seconds, minutes, hours	Months, years, decades
Decision drivers	Technical indicators, momentum, breaking news	Stock fundamentals, diversification
Transaction frequency	High (usually multiple times daily)	Low
Capital requirements	$25,000 minimum)	Can start with any amount
Tax implications	Short-term capital gains (higher than long-term rate)	Long-term capital gains

Is Day Trading Profitable?

While a small number of traders show exceptional success, the uncomfortable truth about day trading profitability is revealed in various academic studies and broker data:

• According to a study by the Brazilian Securities and Exchange Commission, approximately 97% of 1,600 day traders who persisted for more than 300 days lost money.
• One study of day trader profitability put their average net annual return at -$750 (a loss).
• A multi-year analysis of day traders in Taiwan found that a majority lose money in any given year, and less than 1% of the most profitable day traders from the prior year go on to earn positive abnormal returns the next year.
• Active day traders in the U.S. underperform a value-weighted index by an average 10.3% annually.
• Day traders engaging in more frequent and larger trades are more likely to suffer losses.
• An SEC report looking at records of 12 forex brokerages revealed around 70% of retail FX day traders lost money each quarter.

These dismal statistics point to an undeniable conclusion: The evidence is overwhelming that the vast majority of day traders will lose money.

Factors Influencing Day Trading Profitability

Despite the inherent challenges and poor outlook for day trading as a lucrative full-time job, there are certain factors that can influence the probability of success.

For those still determined to try day trading, several tools and resources are essential for getting started:

Factors that Help

1. Capital adequacy: Sufficient starting capital provides a buffer against inevitable losses and allows proper position sizing. Pattern day trader rules require a minimum balance of $25,000 in a margin account, but a buffer is needed to make trades to account for initial losses.
2. Knowledge and skills: A deep understanding of market mechanics, price action, and trading psychology is needed. Books, courses, and mentorship programs from legitimate trading educators are helpful.
3. Disciplined approach: Stick to an objective, predefined trading plan. Maintain focus and diligence. Day traders are only human and like nearly everyone else they can succumb to emotional biases with money on the line. Some of those biases include fear of missing out (FOMO), confirmation bias, overconfidence, loss-aversion, and anchoring bias.
4. Risk management: Limit potential losses with stop-loss orders or trailing stops. Set daily loss limits and keep backups and logs.
5. Technology and tools: Use professional-grade trading platforms, real-time data, and analytical software with reliable internet connections and backups. Many online brokers today offer reliable, low-latency platforms with advanced charting capabilities, order-execution tools, and market-depth information.
6. Market conditions: More liquid, actively-traded securities will have tighter bid-ask spreads.

Important

Emotional control and adherence to a well-defined trading plan are vital for day trading success.

Developing a Trading Strategy

A robust day trading strategy should include:

1. Entry and exit rules: Have specific, objective criteria for initiating and closing positions.
2. Position sizing: Follow established guidelines for determining appropriate position sizes based on account size, risk tolerance, and expected drawdowns.
3. Loss parameters: Fix maximum loss amounts per trade and per day.
4. Time frames: Understand the specific time frames you’ll analyze and trade within.
5. Securities selection: Become familiar with the criteria you’ll use for selecting the strategies and securities you’ll trade, whether stocks, futures, or forex pairs.

Most brokers and platforms today offer demo accounts for making “paper trades” to help beginning traders test their trading strategies. Before risking real money, new traders should invest time in simulation and paper trading to develop and validate their approach.

The Bottom Line

Day trading offers the allure of quick profits but comes with enormous risks. Indeed, the odds are not in the average day trader’s favor. Success requires substantial capital, sophisticated tools, advanced knowledge, psychological discipline, and effective risk management. Even for those with these advantages, only a minority of day traders achieve consistent profitability.

The American economic historian and labor economist is the third woman to win the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences

Fact checked by Suzanne Kvilhaug

Claudia Goldin is an American economic historian and labor economist, and the third woman to win the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences (officially known as the Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel). She is the first woman to have won the prize solo.

Best known for her historical research on women in the U.S. economy, Goldin’s work spans a wide range of topics, including the gender wage gap, women in the labor force, income inequality, education, immigration, and technological change. She has published several books, held multiple director roles with the National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER), and been recognized with many other awards and academic fellowships.

Key Takeaways

• Claudia Goldin is a prominent American economic historian and labor economist.
• She has made significant contributions to the field of economics, particularly in the study of gender and labor economics.
• She currently holds the position of Henry Lee Professor of Economics at Harvard University.
• She has received numerous awards and recognition for her work, including the 2023 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences.

Early Life and Education

Born Claudia Dale Goldin in the Bronx, New York, in 1946, Goldin grew up wanting to be a scientist. She originally studied microbiology before discovering economics and pursuing an undergraduate degree in the field at Cornell University, earning a bachelor’s degree in economics in 1967.

Goldin then went on to get a master’s degree (1969) and doctorate (1972) focusing on labor economics at the University of Chicago.

Her study of American economic history delved into the economics of slavery and the post-Civil War South, and her realization that major changes in the labor force during this period had much to do with women, families, and children sparked her interest in focusing on the history of women in the labor force.

Career and Contributions

After her Ph.D., Goldin was hired as an assistant professor of economics in 1971 at the University of Wisconsin-Madison and taught there for three years. In 1974, she accepted an offer at Princeton University, where she taught economics for six years.

From 1979 to 1990, Goldin was a faculty member in the University of Pennsylvania’s economics department before joining the faculty at Harvard, the first woman to be granted tenure in her department.

Goldin was the director of the National Bureau of Economic Research’s (NBER’s) Development of the American Economy program from 1989 to 2017 and is currently a co-director of the NBER’s Gender in the Economy group. In 1999 and 2000, she was president of the Economic History Association, and in 2013, she was president of the American Economic Association.

As one of the first researchers to study the historical role of women in the U.S. labor force, Goldin has made huge contributions to the field of economics as it relates to gender and the workforce.

Her book, “Career and Family: Women’s Century-Long Journey Toward Equity;” published in 2021, explores how women have balanced their careers with their family life from 1900 until the present. In it, she characterizes and demonstrates how “greedy” work, or jobs that pay more for being on call or working long hours, contributes to the gender wage gap.

In an interview, Goldin said, “We know the gender gap is widened enormously when families are formed. … This doesn’t mean that women leave the workforce; it means that they take positions in which flexibility is cheaper. … It’s the cost of flexibility that really matters.”

Goldin’s other influential work focuses on the history of women’s participation in higher education, including the reasons why women now comprise the majority of university undergraduate enrollment numbers; the impact of the contraceptive pill on women’s marriage and career decisions; the social indicator of women’s surnames after marriage; and the life cycle of women’s employment.

Academic Positions and Affiliations

Goldin is currently the Henry Lee Professor of Economics and holds the Lee and Ezpeleta Professorship of Arts and Sciences at Harvard University. She is also a research fellow with the Institute of Labor Economics (IZA).

Goldin is a member of many notable organizations, including the National Academy of Sciences and the American Philosophical Society, and a fellow of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the Society of Labor Economists (SOLE), the Econometric Society, and the Cliometric Society.

From 1984 to 1988, she was editor of the Journal of Economic History. She has also served on several editorial and advisory boards for other journals and economics publications.

Awards and Recognition

Goldin has won many awards for her work, most notably the 2023 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Science. She is the third woman to receive the prize and the first woman to be awarded it solo. The prize was awarded for Goldin’s work on the history of women’s participation in the American labor market, “for having advanced our understanding of women’s labor market outcomes,” and cited as “the first comprehensive account of women’s earnings and labor market participation through the centuries.”

Specifically, Goldin mapped the trend of women’s participation in the American labor market and demonstrated that it did not follow a straightforward upward trajectory throughout the period of time she studied (the late 18th century to the late 20th century).

In fact, it formed a U-shaped curve: The participation of married women in the labor economy decreased during the transition from an agrarian to an industrial society and began to increase as the service sector grew in the early 20th century, then continued to increase as access to education and the contraceptive pill grew and career expectations for women shifted.

Some of the other notable awards she has received include: 

• The Richard A. Lester Prize for Outstanding Book in Labor Economics and Industrial Relations, for her 2021 book, “Career and Family” (2022)
• The Nemmers Prize in Economics from Northwestern University (2020)
• The BBVA Frontiers of Knowledge Award in Economics (2019)
• The IZA Prize in Labor Economics from the Institute of Labor Economics (2016)
• The Mincer Prize from the Society of Labor Economists for her lifetime contributions to the field of labor economics (2009)

Goldin has also been granted honorary doctorates, fellowships, and research grants from many major academic institutions and foundations.

Impact and Influence

One of the major impacts of Goldin’s Nobel Prize-winning work is that she provided a different explanation for the gender pay gap. Previously, the gap could be explained by gendered differences in educational and occupational choices. Goldin’s work demonstrates that much of the difference in earnings currently is between women and men working in the same occupation and that the gap in earnings usually arises when a woman gives birth to her first child.

Regarding this work, Jakob Svensson, chair of the Committee for the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences, said, “Understanding women’s role in the labour [sic] is important for society. Thanks to Claudia Goldin’s groundbreaking research, we now know much more about the underlying factors and which barriers may need to be addressed in the future.”

Goldin’s lifetime work has had a huge impact on the field of economics, ushering in a missing perspective backed up by comprehensive data and analysis. Betsey Stevensen, professor of economics and public policy at the University of Michigan and one of Goldin’s mentees, said, “Claudia marched in to document the changing roles of women in society at a time when many male economists just didn’t care. Claudia understood that work and life were intertwined.”

Cecilia Rouse, a former Ph.D. student of Goldin’s, a former advisor to Presidents Barack Obama and Bill Clinton, and a former chair of the Council of Economic Advisers to President Joe Biden, commented on Goldin’s Nobel win.

She said, “What they recognized was a body of work, which piece by piece has helped us to fill in a portrait and understand the role of women in the economy over centuries. She has helped us to understand the wage structure over the 20th century. She’s done work on education, and she does so with intention; she does so creatively.”

What Are Claudia Goldin’s Notable Contributions to the Field of Economics?

Claudia Goldin has made many contributions to the study of labor economics as it relates to gender. Notably, she helped further the understanding of what causes the gender pay gap and when it tends to arise by mapping the history of women’s participation in the American labor market.

What Awards Has Claudia Goldin Received for Her Work?

Claudia Goldin has received many notable awards for her work, including the 2023 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences. She also won the 2020 Nemmers Prize in Economics from Northwestern University, the 2019 BBVA Frontiers of Knowledge Award in Economics, the 2016 IZA Prize in Labor Economics from the Institute of Labor Economics, and the 2009 Mincer Prize from the Society of Labor Economists for her lifetime contributions to the field of labor economics.

How Has Claudia Goldin Influenced the Study of Gender and Labor Economics?

Claudia Goldin’s work changed the previous understanding of the gender pay gap by demonstrating that the majority of the current earnings difference is between men and women who are in the same occupation and that this difference tends to arise when a woman’s first child is born. Goldin has also done work on women’s participation in higher education; the impact of the contraceptive pill on women’s marriage and career decisions; and the life cycle of women’s employment.

What Are Some of Claudia Goldin’s Notable Research Areas?

As an economic historian and labor economist, Claudia Goldin has researched women’s participation in labor, the gender wage gap, education, immigration, technological change, and income inequality.

What Did Claudia Goldin Receive the Nobel Prize in Economics For?

Claudia Goldin was awarded the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences “for having advanced our understanding of women’s labor market outcomes” and providing “the first comprehensive account of women’s earnings and labor market participation through the centuries,” according to the Nobel Prize committee.

The Bottom Line

Claudia Goldin has contributed much to the field of economics and beyond. As recognized by her 2023 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences, her lifetime historical research and economic analysis have helped shape how we understand the gender pay gap and what factors contributed to women’s participation in the American labor market over different periods of time.

As the Henry Lee Professor of Economics at Harvard, she continues to publish, teach, and mentor, as well as contribute to research organizations such as the National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) and the Institute of Labor Economics (IZA).

Signals To Watch for the State of the Market and the Economy

Reviewed by Charles Potters

Investors and policymakers always want tools to predict future trends and to make informed decisions. Economic indicators stand out among these tools as crucial signposts. They offer insights into the health and direction of an economy.

Leading, lagging, and coincident indicators form a trifecta of economic measures. Each plays a role in forecasting, confirming, or telling us about the market or the broader economy. They fall into one of three categories:

• Leading indicators point toward future events.
• Lagging indicators confirm economic or market shifts that are already in motion.
• Coincident indicators occur in real time and clarify the state of the economy.

Key Takeaways

• An indicator is a statistic that predicts and understands financial or economic trends.
• All indicators fall into one of three categories. They’re leading, lagging, or coincident.
• Leading indicators point toward possible future events.
• Lagging indicators are used to confirm a pattern in progress.
• Coincident indicators occur in real time and help clarify the state of the economy.

What Are Indicators?

An indicator is a statistic used to predict and understand financial or economic trends.

Some indicators seem lighthearted but, in the end, have a certain validity. The lipstick indicator was invented by Leonard Lauder, chair of the Estee Lauder cosmetic company. He claimed that rising sales of lipstick are an indicator of troubled times and he was right.

The most closely watched indicators are social, business, and economic statistics published by respected sources, however. These sources include various departments of the U.S. government. All are based on surveys that are conducted regularly, usually once a month. This allows the results to be tracked and analyzed over time.

The information provided by these indicators is very influential. Indicators help shape fiscal and monetary policy, business investments and strategies, and the value of share prices.

Leading Indicators

Leading indicators are economic statistics that often anticipate trends, providing a means of forecasting economic activity. They typically change before the broader economy shifts, “leading” or in front of them.

Yield Curves

Yield curves plot the interest rates of bonds with equal credit quality but different maturity dates. The shape of a yield curve can provide crucial information about future economic conditions:

• A normal, upward-sloping curve often suggests economic expansion.
• An inverted curve where short-term rates exceed long-term rates has historically preceded recessions.

Negative yield curves haven’t borne this out yet in the 2020s, however.

New Housing Starts

It indicates that builders are optimistic about demand in the near future for newly constructed homes when housing starts to rise. Builders are cautious when they fall because they’re worried about building homes that can’t be sold. Housing starts are therefore seen as a sign that home sales are slowing or at least that builders fear they will.

Purchasing Managers’ Index (PMI)

The PMI measures the health of the manufacturing and service sectors based on surveys of private-sector companies:

• A score above 50 indicates expansion.
• A score below 50 suggests contraction.

Money Supply

The overall amount of money circulating in an economy can signal future economic strength.

• Increases in the money supply often correlate with economic growth.
• Reductions in the money supply can indicate a potential economic slowdown.

These indicators can provide a more comprehensive view of potential economic directions when they’re analyzed collectively. No single indicator is infallible, however. There are arguments among experts over just how much we should trust each of these indicators, alone or with others.

Lagging Indicators

Lagging indicators can only be known after the event but that doesn’t make them useless. They confirm patterns.

The unemployment rate is one of the more reliable lagging indicators. The overall economy has slowed if the unemployment rate rose last month and the month before. Lower employment means less spending in the economy so this suggests that the slowdown will continue.

The consumer price index (CPI) measures changes in the inflation rate and is another closely watched lagging indicator. Few events cause more economic ripple effects than price increases. The U.S. Federal Reserve kept raising the fed funds rate to battle post-pandemic inflation in the 2020s. That campaign seemed to have worked by 2024.

Coincident Indicators

Coincident indicators are data points that usually change simultaneously with general economic conditions. They’re viewed as reflecting the present economy as a result. Leading indicators look ahead and lagging indicators look behind. Coincident indicators reflect the present or the very recent past.

Important

All three types of indicators are used together to get a better, fuller sense of what’s in store for the economy and the market.

Personal income is a coincident indicator of economic health. Higher personal income numbers coincide with a stronger economy. Lower personal income numbers mean the economy is struggling.

The gross domestic product (GDP) of an economy is also a coincident indicator. This is the real GDP for the U.S.: the GDP adjusted for inflation.

How Reliable Are Leading Indicators for Predicting Economic Shifts?

Their dependability varies. The yield curve correctly signaled all nine recessions from 1955 until the late 2010s with only one false positive. Changes in the economy can mean that it’s no longer the signal it once was, however. The lesson is that the effectiveness of indicators changes over time because of structural economic shifts or policy changes.

How Are Advances in Data Analytics Changing How Experts Use Economic Indicators?

Big data analytics and artificial intelligence are enabling the creation of new, more subtle indicators of economic shifts. Satellite imagery is used to estimate retail sales by counting cars in shopping mall parking lots. Social media sentiment analysis is being explored as a potential leading indicator of consumer behavior.

These data sources offer more frequent and granular insights than traditional monthly or quarterly reports. They also present challenges in terms of data quality and privacy concerns, however.

Do Global Events Change How We Read Economic Indicators?

Global events can significantly distort the usual power of indicators to tell us about the economic currents. Many traditional indicators became less reliable during the COVID-19 pandemic because of economic disruptions and the inability to collect the necessary data. Economists turned to high-frequency data like credit card spending or mobility reports for more real-time insights.

The Bottom Line

Leading, lagging, and coincident indicators are part of a tool kit for understanding and forecasting economic trends. Leading indicators such as yield curves, new housing starts, and the PMI, offer signs of future economic activity. These forward-looking metrics help investors and policymakers to anticipate potential economic changes and react accordingly.

Lagging indicators like unemployment rates and corporate profits, confirm long-term trends but are slower to reflect changes. They serve as a retrospective view of the recent economic past.

Coincident indicators including GDP and retail sales move with the economy. They provide a real-time snapshot of present conditions.

Interpreting these indicators requires careful consideration of global events, structural economic changes, and evolving market dynamics, however. Many indicators are signals but not direct readings of the economy and experts often clash on how to read these signals in light of others arising from changes in the markets.

Crypto scams and security breaches have remained a serious concern ever since the advent of cryptocurrencies some 15 years ago.

With worldwide crypto losses estimated at $10+ billion in 2024 alone, vulnerabilities have left some investors worried about what they can do to protect themselves.

Key Takeaways

• Reports suggest that crypto scams and hacks result in billions of dollars in yearly losses.
• Ponzi schemes, phishing, and fake exchanges are common scams, while hackers focus their attacks on vulnerable exchanges and smart contracts.
• Use only reputable platforms alongside two-factor authentication (2FA) and keep your private keys secure.

Types of Crypto Scams and Hacks

Although blockchain technology is designed to prevent tampering, the fundamental weaknesses are typically in the ecosystem that exists around it.

Defrauding people out of their money is a trick as old as time. The cryptocurrency space has simply provided scammers with new tools and techniques to do so. Bad actors take advantage of people’s natural penchant for greed combined with a limited understanding of blockchain technology and the irreversibility of transfers to separate victims from their digital assets with little chance of recovery.

Common Crypto Scams

• Ponzi/pyramid schemes: Paying early investors with new investor funds while falsely claiming returns come from legitimate growth.
• High-yield promises: The most popular, these lure investors with false guarantees of exceptional, risk-free returns.
• Pump-and-dumps: Artificially inflate asset prices through misinformation, then sell holdings at the peak.
• Pig butchering: These involve cultivating online relationships before persuading victims to send crypto.
• Rug pulls/exit scams: Abandon projects and abscond with investor funds after generating initial excitement.
• Phishing/crypto-drainer: Create fake websites or emails to steal credentials or trick users into approving transactions that drain wallets.
• Impersonation/livestream scams: Impersonate celebrities/influencers to promote fake giveaways, often requiring upfront deposits.
• ATM scams: Create urgent justification for consumers to take cash from their bank accounts and put it into a Bitcoin ATM.
• Address poisoning: Sending tiny amounts from similar-looking addresses to trick recipients into using the wrong address for future transactions.
• Recovery scams: Target previous victims with false promises to recover lost funds for a fee.

Hong Kong-based BitForex executed a suspected rug pull in February 2024, withdrawing about $56.5 million in cryptocurrency before going dark.

Crypto Hacks

While scams have people unwittingly handing over their crypto, hacks target vulnerabilities in the code, infrastructure, or security protocols of third-party platforms, exchanges, and wallets, allowing attackers to bypass security measures and steal funds directly from the system.

Common Crypto Hacks

• Smart contract hacking: Exploiting vulnerabilities in blockchain application code.
• 51% attacks: Controlling majority mining power to manipulate blockchain transactions.
• Person-in-the-middle attacks: Intercepting communications between users and crypto services.
• Exchange breaches: Attacking crypto exchanges through security vulnerabilities.
• DNS hijacking: Redirecting users from legitimate crypto websites to malicious clones.
• Brute force attack: Testing all possible password combinations to gain unauthorized access.

Some Notable 2024 Crypto Hacks
Incident	Amount Stolen	Description
DMM Bitcoin	$305 million	Japanese exchange hacked
PlayDapp	$290 million	South Korean blockchain-based gaming platform hacked
WazirX	$235 million	Indian crypto exchange hacked
Radiant Capital	$50 million	Flash loan attack on DeFi lending platform
Gala Games	$22 million	Blockchain gaming company hacked
Prism Finance	$12 million	White-Hat exploit of smart contract

Important

North Korea is the largest state-sponsor of crypto hacks, stealing $6-plus billion in crypto assets since 2017.

How To Protect Your Crypto

Protecting crypto requires certain measures:

• Use reputable platforms: Choose regulated exchanges and wallets with proven security records and positive reviews.
• Enable 2FA: This adds an extra security layer.
• Reject unrealistic claims: If it sounds too good to be true, it probably is.
• Secure private keys: Never share keys, and use cold storage for long-term holdings.
• Strong passwords: Use unique, complex passwords.
• Update software: Keep wallet applications and security patches current.
• Verify websites: Check URLs and security certificates before entering credentials.
• Stay informed: Learn about emerging scams and security best practices.
• Monitor activity: Regularly review transactions for unauthorized access.
• Report suspicious activity: Alert platforms and authorities immediately if fraud is suspected.

The Bottom Line

In 2024, the crypto space saw significant losses from scams and hacks, netting thieves and fraudsters billions. Investors and holders can protect themselves by adopting best practices, thereby ensuring a smoother, safer engagement with the crypto market.

Investopedia & Travel + Leisure identified top locations in each region for retirees

Fact checked by Sienna Wrenn

When you picture retirement, what do you see? Perhaps you imagine yourself hiking through lush mountains or kayaking on scenic lakes. Or maybe you see yourself enjoying the sunny shores of a coastal beach—fishing, perhaps, or just resting on the sands with a view of the sea.  

It’s easy to daydream but pinning down an actual location for your retirement vision can be trickier. Which location matches your vision—and most importantly, where can your money go the furthest?

To help inform your decision-making, Investopedia collaborated with Travel + Leisure to identify 50 of the best U.S. cities to retire in. Based on our research, we selected 10 cities in five regions across the U.S. that blend below-average costs living costs, health care access, and cultural and recreational opportunities. 

Key Takeaways

• With rising housing costs, inflation, and health care expenses, choosing a retirement destination where your money stretches further is crucial.
• This list highlights 50 best U.S. cities to retire in, considering factors like housing, taxes, health care access, and local amenities.
• There are budget-friendly retirement options in every region of the U.S., so you might not have to move far to save money.
• Waycross, Georgia has the lowest median home value price on our list, while Eagle Pass, Texas has the lowest monthly food costs and taxes.
• Ultimately, the best location for your retirement will depend on your goals, budget, and preferred lifestyle.

Top 50 Cities Where Lifestyle & Affordability Meet

Northeast

1. Hermitage, Pennsylvania 

This small town has a median age of 45 and a median household income of $60,614. Golf lovers—you’re in luck: Hermitage has 12 public golf courses, including the world’s only free golf course. 

2. Johnstown, Pennsylvania

Don’t overlook this small town of just 17,809 people. Johnstown also boasts low median housing costs of just $711 and many activities for the outdoor enthusiast, including skiing, fishing, hiking, and more. 

3. Altoona, Pennsylvania

If you are craving a bigger town than our previously mentioned Pennsylvania recs, Altoona might be for you, with a population of 42,418. For history buffs: Altoona owes its origin and growth to the Pennsylvania Railroad, chartered in 1846.

Tip

Pennsylvania doesn’t tax Social Security or individual retirement (IRA), 401(k), or pension withdrawals.

4. Utica, New York

Utica, located just an hour’s drive from Syracuse, offers affordable home prices and reasonable housing costs overall. Oneida County, where Utica is located, offers 379 health care providers such as doctor’s offices, clinics, and home health agencies.

5. Union, New York

Want to live in New York State but avoid the super-expensive housing prices closer to New York City? Union, New York could be for you. Located upstate in the Appalachian Mountains, the town offers median home prices of  $171,100.

Note

New York State does not tax Social Security but does tax IRA, 401(k), and most pension withdrawals.

6. Springfield, Massachusetts

Springfield is the third-largest city in Massachusetts, with a population of 1,533,337. It’s only 16 miles from Bradley International Airport and offers over 20 hospitals countywide.

7. Conway, New Hampshire

Conway’s median population age skews a bit older at 54, which is nice for those seeking a more laid-back community. Though the population is a small 10,340, there are still over 70 arts and entertainment venues within its county.

8. Vineland, New Jersey

Vineland might not have the lowest median home value on our list at $205,600, but retirees can save on groceries with monthly food costs at a more affordable rate of $620.

9. Concord, New Hampshire

Outside of four beautiful seasons, this capital city offers a solid health care system, with 40 hospitals and about 250 health care providers including doctor’s offices and clinics within its county.

10. Pittsfield, Massachusetts

The cost of living in Pittsfield is higher than others on our list, with a median home value of $266,400. However, the climate risk level is relatively low, and the closest major international airport, Bradley International, is only 41 miles away from its county center.

Southeast

1. Waycross, Georgia

This small town of 13,643 offers affordable housing, with a county median home value at $106,500 and median monthly housing costs of $736. Check out its historic downtown district or Okefenokee swamp lands. 

Tip

Waycross’s median home value is the lowest on our entire list.

2. Danville City, Virginia

Danville boasts the lowest transportation costs on our list, with $1,058 monthly costs. Other factors are low, too: county monthly food costs net out at $586 and average monthly taxes at $556.

3. Litchfield Beach, South Carolina

Want pristine beaches? Say no more. Litchfield’s median age is 52, and the population is just 10,393, so you can relax without the crowds that other areas attract.

4. Wheeling, West Virginia

Wheeling is among the lower monthly transportation costs on our list. The climate risk level is also relatively low, which is a plus.

5. Natchez, Mississippi

Set on the Mississippi River, Natchez’s median monthly housing costs are a low $592, and on top of that, Mississippi doesn’t tax Social Security benefits or IRA, 401(k), or pension withdrawals. 

6. Tryon, North Carolina

Craving small-town living? Tyron is for you: it has a population of just 1,620 and a slogan of “The Friendliest Town in the South.” Tyron also has mild weather and a very low climate risk rating.

7. Alexandria, Louisiana

Alexandria has over 400 health care providers including doctor’s offices, clinics, and home health services and 37 hospitals in its county. Louisiana also doesn’t tax Social Security.

8. Sebring, Florida

This small town located in central Florida skews older, with a median population age of 54. Sebring offers low monthly taxes at around $549, and is home to several “lake beaches.”

9. Paducah, Kentucky

Quilting lovers—get excited. Paducah is known as “Quilty City USA.” On top of that, Paducah has low monthly food costs, so you can eat and quilt comfortably.

10. Paris, Tennessee

Bonjour, Tennessee lovers. Paris’s median monthly housing costs are affordable at $643. The overall climate risk rating is relatively low, too.

Midwest

1. Gregory, South Dakota

This tiny town of 1,219 offers low housing prices, with median home values at $129,000. Its climate risk rating is also very low.

Note

South Dakota doesn’t tax Social Security or IRA, 401(k), or pension withdrawals.

2. Toledo, Ohio

Big city lovers, Toledo is for you. With a population of 236,646, it boasts 887 health care providers such as doctors, clinics, and home health agencies and 81 county hospitals. The Toledo Museum of Art has over 30,000 pieces on display.

3. Poplar Bluff, Missouri

Located between St. Louis, Memphis, and Little Rock, Poplar Bluff has our list’s second-lowest county monthly food costs.

4. Corning, Iowa

Corning’s county is 65 miles from Eppley Airport and has a population of just 1,465. Its median home value of $116,900 is among the lowest for midwestern spots. 

Note

Corning is the birthplace of Johnny Carson.

5. Farmington, Missouri

Craving low taxes? Residents of St. Francis County where Farmington is located pay among the lowest taxes on our list, sitting at $577 on average per month. Farmington also is home to Indian Lake Park, which is a perfect setting for your swimming and canoeing dreams.

6. Youngstown, Ohio

This large town of 58,847 sits in Mahoning County, which only 46 miles from Pittsburgh International Airport. It’s also home to the Butler Institute of American Art, founded in 1919. 

7. Bay City, Michigan

This 31,905-person waterfront town offers an affordable spot for those who want to live in Michigan.

8. Mason City, Iowa

Mason City has a rich musical heritage and offers homes for less than $155,000. Iowa also doesn’t tax Social Security benefits or 401(k) withdrawals.

9. Saginaw, Michigan

Saginaw offers over 400 health care providers including doctor’s offices and clinics and has a median age that skews younger—41 years old.

10. Muncie, Indiana

This large town offers great affordable housing options and is home to Ball State University.

Southwest

1. Las Vegas, New Mexico

While you won’t find the glitz and glitter of Las Vegas, Nevada in this small town of 12,814 people, you will find some of the lowest median housing and transportation costs on our list.

2. Santa Rosa, New Mexico

This itty-bitty town of just 2,742 has a very low county climate risk score. Santa Rosa offers scuba diving, horseback riding, and golf, too.

3. Hugo, Oklahoma

Hugo’s median monthly housing costs of $608 are among the lowest among these 50 places. Plus, Oklahoma doesn’t tax Social Security benefits.

4. Port Arthur, Texas

Home to delicious Cajun seafood, this large town of 55,393 has some of the lowest monthly grocery costs on our list.

5. Eagle Pass, Texas

Eagle Pass’s county boasts the lowest monthly taxes of all 50 places on our list. The median age is also the lowest on the list, at a hair above 30.

6. Longview, Texas

Though the median home value is among the highest in the Southwest, at $185,800, the median household income is also the highest in the Southwest, at $64,809.

Note

Texas does not tax Social Security benefits or IRA, 401(k), or pension withdrawals.

7. Parker, Arizona

Overlooking the Colorado River, Parker has the second-lowest median monthly housing cost on the list, at $539.

8. Albuquerque, New Mexico

Albuquerque is New Mexico’s largest city, with a population of 558,736. You can reap the advantages a big city offers, such as being only 4 miles from Albuquerque International Sunport Airport, having access to over 1,500 health care providers, and enjoying low average monthly transportation costs of $1,081 (the second lowest on this list.)

9. Muskogee, Oklahoma

Located 53 miles southeast of Tulsa, Muskogee is below the median for home values on the southwestern part of our list, with prices at $138,800.

10. Lake Havasu City, Arizona

With a county median age of 53, this large town is retirement-friendly, offering bird-watching, water activities, and golfing.

West

1. Pocatello, Idaho

Pocatello offers 416 health care providers and 17 county hospitals. Furthermore, history lovers can check out the Idaho Museum of Natural History, located on Idaho University’s Pocatello campus. 

2. Butte-Silver Bow, ​​Montana

Low climate risk and beautiful hiking? Check out Butt-Silver Bow, which also offers the lowest median monthly housing costs on our western list.

3. Twin Falls, Idaho

Home to the Shoshone Falls, a waterfall known as “the Niagara of the West,” Twin Falls has a relatively low climate risk and manageable cost of living.

4. Pomeroy, Washington

Pomeroy has the second-lowest monthly housing costs of our western picks. With a population of just 1,439, it is perfect for the retiree craving small-town living. 

5. Omak, Washington. 

Giddyup, retirees: Home to the Stampede Rodeo, Omak offers sandy beaches plus the lowest county monthly taxes of the Western states on our list.

6. Great Falls, Montana

Home to Great Falls International Airport, Great Falls sits halfway between Glacier National Park and Yellowstone National Park. It also has a relatively low climate risk rating.

7. Carson City, Nevada

While Carson City’s median home values are the highest on the whole list at just under $400,000, Nevada doesn’t tax Social Security benefits or IRA, 401(k), or pension withdrawals. Plus, Carson City’s transportation costs are among the lowest of the western picks.

8. Evanston, Wyoming

Evanston has the highest county median household income of the western list at $82,672. Wyoming doesn’t tax Social Security benefits of IRA, 401(k),  or pension withdrawals.

9. Ontario, Oregon

This small town has the lowest monthly food costs out of the western spots. Ontario has scenic mountain ranges and river canyons—perfect for outdoor enthusiasts. 

10. Pueblo, Colorado

One of the largest cities on our list, Pueblo, has a population of over 100,000. It has over 300 health care providers and an affordable cost of living. Ski lovers can hit the slopes at Monarch Mountain, just two and a half hours away. 

Note

To learn more about how we created this list of 50 best places to retire, read our methodology.

Why Affordability Matters in Retirement

As people live longer, finding an affordable place to retire is more important than ever.

Housing costs are going up, with median home prices up 24% from 2020 to 2024. According to Pew Research, inflation has also increased the cost of food and goods, with 74% of Americans expressing concern over rising prices in late 2024.

Note

The national inflation rate average has more than doubled since 2020.

Health care is another primary concern, with a typical couple needing over $300,000 for medical expenses in retirement (excluding long-term care).

These expenses can quickly add up, and the cost of living shows no signs of decreasing. Where you choose to retire can have a significant financial impact, so it’s important to prioritize what matters most to you. You may want easy access to a major airport for family visits or focus on finding the most tax-friendly state. Perhaps owning a new home is a dream, so you want the lowest housing costs out there. Everyone has different goals and priorities, so it’s important to weigh these factors when making your decision.

The Bottom Line

With more than half of adults aged 50+ worried about not having enough money to retire comfortably, affordability is key. Our list takes into account factors like housing costs, grocery bills, tax laws, and more to help you make a more informed decision about where to retire. There’s no one-size-fits-all solution, but we hope our list provides a helpful starting point for your retirement planning.

Fact checked by Suzanne Kvilhaug
Reviewed by David Kindness

Investors interested in tapping into the United Kingdom’s stock markets have options. One is to open a brokerage account in the U.K. to buy stocks. Another is to invest in mutual funds focusing on U.K. equity securities. An easier and arguably more efficient choice for gaining exposure to this market is through U.K. equity exchange-traded funds (ETFs).

These funds are tied to a market where there’s a wealth of data and news available, an investor who knows many of the leading companies, a long trading history and shared language for those in the U.S., and a wide variety of equity ETFs to choose from. In this article, we highlight how to invest in these securities along with their pros and cons.

Key Takeaways

• U.K. equity ETFs trade like stocks and are designed to mimic the performance of indexes like the FTSE 100 Index.
• Review the underlying holdings, performance history, and fees of each ETF you choose.
• Thoroughly research any prospective ETF or consult a financial advisor to ensure it aligns with your investment goals and risk profile.
• Keep abreast of market changes, reevaluate your investments, and review the tax implications and regulations of investing in U.K. equity ETFs before you invest any money.

What Are U.K. Equity ETFs?

U.K. equity exchange-traded funds are convenient, traded on stock exchanges like stocks, and are designed to mirror the performance of U.K. indexes like the FTSE 100 Index. These ETFs pool funds to buy a diversified portfolio of assets based on a chosen index’s composition.

Country-specific ETFs are an increasingly popular choice among investors seeking diversified exposure to specific geographic markets. U.K. equity ETFs offer specific benefits that some other regional ETFs cannot.

These ETFs allow investors to efficiently gain exposure to the U.K. market, including various sectors and different levels of market capitalization. Investors interested in these equity ETFs should consider their investment goals, risk tolerance, and the specific characteristics of the ETFs available, including their underlying holdings, performance over time, the reputation of their managers, and fees.

Understanding the U.K. Market

The United Kingdom has the sixth-largest economy in the world. The country’s gross domestic product (GDP) reached $3.11 trillion as of 2022. The country faced a highly complex financial trajectory for an economy long considered among the world’s most stable. GDP peaked at $3.09 trillion in 2007 before dropping to $2.41 trillion two years later before recovering and hitting another peak in 2014 of $3.14 trillion.

Among those peaks were the 2008 financial crisis, Brexit (which took effect in 2020), and the COVID-19 pandemic. GDP per capita declined from $50,397 in 2007 to $49,465 in 2023. For comparison, U.S. GDP per capita grew by over 72% to $82,769 in the same period.

The country’s economy is expected to grow from 1.2% to 1.7% in 2025. This is largely due to measures announced in the country’s fall budget, which led to a rise in domestic demand. Prices are expected to remain high, as inflation is expected to range between 2.4% and 2.7% throughout the year. Labor market conditions are expected to deteriorate with forecasts of the unemployment rate to average between 4.4% to 4.7% in 2025.

Economists expect tariffs placed on trading partners by the U.S. to have an effect on confidence and growth in the euro area. They predict an impact to spill over into the British economy, although it may be small. But, the potential for a free trade deal between the U.K. and the U.S. could help, along with the possibility of strengthening ties with the European Union (EU).

Major exports include cars, gas turbines, gold, crude petroleum, and packaged medications. London remains a global center for finance and insurance. As a significant trading power, though, the U.K.’s economy and financial markets are sensitive to changes in international trade. The strength or weakness of the British pound (GBP) relative to other currencies, especially the U.S. dollar, significantly affects the country’s exports and imports.

Investing in U.K. equity ETFs presents unique prospects despite the U.K.’s recent economic challenges. Those considering U.K. equity ETFs should weigh the following factors to make more informed decisions:

• A historically resilient but recently fluctuating GDP
• A significant and vital financial sector
• The impact of Brexit
• The potential for sector-specific growth

The U.K.’s established financial markets and potential in emerging industries could make it a worthwhile option for a diversified portfolio of international investments.

How Do U.K. Equity ETFs Work?

Most equity ETFs track the performance of a specific index, such as the FTSE 100 or FTSE 250. These ETFs aim to replicate the index’s exposure and performance by holding the same stocks in similar proportions. They trade on stock exchanges like individual stocks so investors can buy and sell shares of a U.K. equity ETF throughout the trading day at market prices.

U.K. equity ETF shares are created in large blocks called creation units. These are typically bought and sold by institutional investors and are exchanged for a basket of underlying securities that mirror the ETF’s portfolio. Market makers ensure liquidity in the ETF. They assure trading by buying and selling ETF shares, working to keep an ETF’s market price close to its net asset value (NAV).

They accomplish this by using arbitrage. If the ETF trades at a significant premium or discount to its NAV, then institutional investors (or authorized participants) can profit from the price difference by creating or redeeming creation units, which helps realign the ETF’s market price with its NAV.

ETFs typically have lower expense ratios compared to mutual funds. This is because most ETFs are passively managed, tracking an index rather than actively selecting stocks and other securities. Also, if U.K. equities pay dividends, they are typically passed on to ETF shareholders in cash or as additional shares in the ETF.

Like other ETFs, U.K. equity ETFs are transparent about their holdings. Investors can easily access information about a fund’s assets and contrast them against others. ETFs can be more tax-efficient compared with mutual funds or with holding individual stocks.

What to Consider When Investing in U.K. Equity ETFs

There are several main factors to assess when investing in U.K. equity ETFs:

1. Top-down assessment: Incorporate a top-down approach to this investment vehicle. This means analyzing the economic and market conditions in the U.K., including its political stability, prospects for economic growth, interest rates, and the strength of its currency.
2. Continuing Brexit fallout: You’ll also want to see how the U.K. continues to negotiate Brexit through the 2020s, especially for financial regulations that might remain continuous with the EU or diverge in meaningful ways. This will help in understanding the risks and opportunities in the U.K. market.
3. Currency risk: Be aware that exchange rate changes between your home currency and the GBP can affect the value of your investment.
4. Market exposure: Determine how and what kind of U.K. equity exposure fits your investment strategy. You should assess their investment objectives. They can be growth- or income-oriented, seek diversification, or have specific exposure to certain sectors or themes. They could also focus on or spread across small-, mid-, and large-cap equities. Make sure you understand the makeup of the index that the ETF follows as well.
5. Costs: A more quantitative factor to consider includes expense ratios. Lower expense ratios can significantly affect long-term returns, especially for passive index-tracking ETFs.
6. Tracking errors: Assess the tracking error. This is the difference between the ETF’s performance and its benchmark. A lower tracking error indicates a better match with the index’s performance.
7. Past performance: ETF performance is another critical factor to consider. While past performance does not determine the ETF’s returns going forward, reviewing historical returns can tell you how the ETF has done through different market conditions, which the U.K. has undoubtedly gone through over the last 15 years. You’ll want to know how it weathered those storms.
8. Income: To receive income, you’ll want to look closely at the distribution policy and yield. Generally, ETFs periodically distribute the dividends they receive. Some U.K. equity ETFs offer attractive distribution yields.
9. Taxes: Having discussed income, you’ll then want to understand the tax implications of investing in U.K. equity ETFs, both in the U.K. and the U.S. This would include dividend and capital gains tax.

Doing thorough research and consulting with a financial advisor, especially one with experience with the U.K. market, is prudent to ensure that your chosen U.K. ETF aligns with your investment goals and risk profile. Keeping abreast of changes in market conditions and periodically reevaluating the investment are also critical for ensuring that the ETF continues to align with your needs.

Benefits and Risks of Investing in U.K. Equity ETFs

Benefits

• Diversification

• Exposure

• Income

• Market access

• Liquidity

• Lower costs

• Mature market

• Shared language

• Simplicity

• Tax efficiency

• Transparency

• Variety

Risks

• Market risk

• Foreign exchange risk

• Liquidity risk

• Concentration risk

• Interest rate risk

• Political and regulatory risk

• Geopolitical risk

• Taxation risk

• Tracking error risk

Benefits

U.K. equity ETFs offer several benefits in line with investing in ETFs. Here are some:

• Diversification: U.K. equity ETFs provide investors with exposure to a broad range of U.K. stocks or sectors, helping to spread risk across securities. This diversification can reduce the impact of volatility in individual stocks or sectors.
• Exposure: For investors seeking to specifically invest in the U.K. or hedge against other geographic exposures, U.K. equity ETFs offer a targeted way to do this.
• Income: Once stocks within ETFs pay dividends, they are usually distributed to ETF shareholders, providing a potential source of income.
• Market access: ETFs are traded on stock exchanges like stocks, making them accessible to retail and institutional investors.
• Liquidity: U.K. equity ETFs offer high liquidity because of their ability to be traded throughout the trading day. This allows you to move quickly in or out of your position if needed.
• Lower costs: Compared with mutual funds, ETFs have lower expenses. This particularly benefits passive investors looking for market exposure without high management fees.
• Mature market: The U.K. has one of the world’s oldest and most established stock markets—indeed, it helped to invent them—with a long history of investing and a robust regulatory infrastructure. This offers stability and predictability compared with emerging markets.
• Shared language: For English-speaking investors, the U.K. market is remarkably accessible. All company reports, regulatory filings, and news are published in English, making it easier for investors to stay informed about their investments. Also, significant events and financial news from the U.K. are covered by U.S. media outlets.
• Simplicity: ETFs provide a simple avenue for investors to gain exposure to a diversified portfolio without the need to select and manage a large number of stocks individually.
• Tax efficiency: ETFs can be more tax-efficient than mutual funds because of their creation and redemption process, which can minimize capital gains distributions.
• Transparency: ETFs provide daily disclosure of their holdings.
• Variety: U.K. equity ETFs are available in various forms, including funds that track major indexes, specific sectors, and particular investment themes or strategies. This allows you to tailor your equity ETF investment to your goals and risk tolerance.

Risks

While investing in U.K. equity ETFs has several advantages, like any investment, there are also disadvantages. Here are some key risks:

• Market risk: U.K. equity ETFs are subject to market fluctuations and the volatility of the U.K. stock market. Economic conditions, political events, and market sentiment can all affect the performance of U.K. equities and the ETFs that track them.
• Foreign exchange risk: There could be changes in the exchange rate between your home currency and the British pound. This can affect the return on your investment when converting to your local currency.
• Liquidity risk: While most U.K. equity ETFs have good liquidity, there is still some risk, particularly if it’s a niche or sector-specific U.K. equity ETF. Those types of ETFs often have less trading volume, making it harder to buy or sell shares quickly without impacting the price or without paying more from wider bid-ask spreads.
• Concentration risk: Given that some U.K. equity ETFs are focused on specific sectors or industries, this can lead to concentration risk. If that sector or industry underperforms, it can disproportionately affect the ETF’s performance compared with the broader U.K. market.
• Interest rate risk: U.K. financial sector equity ETFs and other interest rate-sensitive equities may be affected by changes in interest rates. This is especially important to watch as the U.K. negotiates slow growth and the need to combat inflation, which could affect the direction of its interest rates.
• Political and regulatory risk: Changes in the U.K.’s fiscal and monetary policies and regulations or political instability in the U.K. will affect its markets and, consequently, U.K. equity ETFs.
• Geopolitical risk: International events and geopolitical developments can impact the U.K. market, affecting the trade, energy, finance, and manufacturing sectors, among others, as well as the ETFs invested in them.
• Taxation risk: Changes in tax laws or regulations, both within the U.K. and in your home country, could affect your after-tax returns.
• Tracking error risk: This is the risk that the ETF will not accurately track the performance of its underlying benchmark. This can result from fund management fees, the timing of dividend reinvestments, or differences in the ETF’s holdings compared with the index.

Top U.K. Equity ETFs

The table below provides the largest U.K. equity ETFs. While most of these ETFs are listed on the London Stock Exchange (LSE) and denominated in GBP, there are also ETFs on U.S. exchanges, denominated in U.S. dollars. The iShares Core FTSE 100 UCITS ETF (ISF) is the largest measured by assets under management (AUM), at £11.87 billion.

For expense ratios, the top U.K. equity ETFs have a range from as low as 0.07% to 0.50%. ISF offers the most competitive expense ratio within the selection, providing a 0.07% value.

These ETFs vary widely in distribution yields, ranging from 0% to 5.47%. The iShares UK Dividend UCITS ETF (IUKD) has the highest distribution yield at 5.47%, making it an attractive option for income-seeking investors.

Top U.K. Equity ETFs as of February 2024
Ticker	Name	Assets Under Management	Expense Ratio	Distribution Yield
ISF	iShares Core FTSE 100 UCITS ETF	£11.78 billion	0.07%	3.46%
VUKE	Vanguard FTSE 100 UCITS ETF	£3.85 billion	0.09%	3.40%
EWU	iShares MSCI United Kingdom ETF	$3.21 billion	0.50%	3.97%
VMID	Vanguard FTSE 250 UCITS ETF	£1.65 billion	0.10%	3.20%
IUKD	iShares UK Dividend UCITS ETF	£889.00 million	0.40%	5.47%
MIDD.L	iShares FTSE 250 UCITS ETF	£669.24 million	0.40%	3.11%
FTAL	SPDR FTSE UK All Share UCITS ETF	£508.34 million	0.20%	N/A
FLGB	Franklin FTSE United Kingdom ETF	$740.37 million	0.09%	4.06%

What Is the Best U.K. Equity ETF?

The best U.K. equity ETF depends on your financial goals and risk tolerance. There is no one-size-fits-all ETF. Nevertheless, some general factors to review include historical performance, distribution yield, ETF volatility, expense ratios, tracking error, and liquidity.

How Do Changes in the British Pound Affect U.K. Equity ETFs?

Changes in the pound’s value can significantly impact U.K. equity ETFs in several ways:

• Exchange rate changes relative to the home currency can affect the total return on investment (ROI).
• The pound’s strength or weakness can have diverse effects on U.K. companies, influencing their profitability and competitiveness.
• A weaker pound will increase the cost of imports, potentially leading to higher inflation in the U.K., which could lead to higher interest rates.
• The value of the GBP influences investor sentiment and capital flows in and out of U.K. assets.

Are There Other Geographically Based ETFs?

Many geographically based ETFs are available, covering a wide range of regions, countries, and specific areas within those countries. These ETFs allow exposure to different global markets, each with its own unique characteristics and investments. Some include global ETFs, regional ETFs, country-specific ETFs, emerging market ETFs, frontier market ETFs, and developed market ETFs.

The Bottom Line

U.K. equity ETFs are investment vehicles that offer an efficient way to gain diversified exposure to the U.K. stock market. The funds, traded on stock exchanges, typically aim to track the performance of specific indexes like the FTSE 100 or FTSE 250 or focus on particular sectors within the U.K. economy.

Like other ETFs, U.K. equity ETFs offer advantages such as diversification, liquidity, lower relative costs, transparency, and flexibility in investment strategies. However, investing in U.K. equity ETFs has certain risks, including market volatility, currency exchange rate fluctuations, and sector-specific risks. These risks should be weighed against your investment goals and risk tolerance.

SBA loans usually take 30 to 90 days from applying to funding

Fact checked by Vikki Velasquez
Reviewed by Katie Miller

If you are applying for a U.S. Small Business Administration (SBA) loan, you can expect the entire process from application to funding to take about 30 to 90 days.

The SBA loan application process takes time in part because it requires extensive documentation. If a small business owner needs funds on a tight timeline, they may find that other loan options will be faster.

Key Takeaways

• It typically takes 30 to 90 days to receive funding from an SBA loan, but the timeline can vary.
• Factors such as the specific lender and type of loan affect how long it will take to get an SBA loan.
• If your small business needs funding faster, consider alternatives to an SBA loan.
• Alternatives to an SBA loan include a conventional business loan, a line of credit, or a secured loan.

What Is an SBA Loan?

SBA loans provide small businesses anywhere from $500 to $5.5 million in funding. These loans are backed by the federal government and funded by SBA-approved lenders, which can include banks, credit unions, and other specialized lenders.

The SBA’s most common loans are offered through its 7(a) loan program. The SBA also offers loans through its 504 and microloan programs.

Average SBA Loan Amount

The average loan size is $436,270 in the SBA 7(a) program and $1,157,142 in the 504 loan program as of March 8, 2025.

The SBA Loan Process

What can you expect during the SBA loan process?

1. The SBA’s Lender Match will connect you with potential SBA-backed lenders within two days.
2. Once you are matched with potential lenders, you can compare loan rates, terms, and fees.
3. Gather all of the necessary documentation you need to apply for an SBA loan. Documentation requirements will vary depending on the lender, but you will typically need items like your business plan, financial projections, and information on your industry experience.
4. Choose the lender you want to work with and submit a loan application.
5. The lender will consider your documentation, your credit history, and the amount of funds you have requested. The lender may also appraise collateral if it is required for the loan. This step in the process is known as underwriting.
6. The lender will reach out to you with a decision.
7. If you are approved, the lender will send you the loan agreement documents, and you will go through the closing process.
8. Once the loan is closed, you will receive the funding for your small business.

Factors That Affect the SBA Loan Funding Time

How long does it take for a business loan to be approved? The amount of time will depend on several factors, including the individual lender and the type of loan.

Lender

The SBA has specific borrower eligibility criteria, but depending on the type of loan that you are applying for, individual lenders may also have specific requirements. SBA-backed lenders may also have varying application processes.

SBA Loan Approval Rate

Approximately 34% of SBA loans and lines of credit were fully approved in 2023 (latest information).

Type of SBA Loan

The funding time for different types of SBA loans can vary. Let’s look in more detail at how specific SBA loans are funded.

• 7(a) loan: SBA 7(a) loans can give small businesses funding for working capital, real estate, refinancing debt, machinery, and other supplies. The maximum loan amount is $5 million. 7(a) loans are typically approved within 60 to 90 days.
• 504 loan: SBA 504 loans are a type of long-term, fixed-rate financing typically used for fixed assets, such as land or machinery. Loans can be up to $5.5 million. It can take up to six months to receive funding.
• SBA Express loan: SBA Express loans are a part of the 7(a) loan program. The maximum loan amount is $500,000. While faster than some other SBA loans, Express loans can still take time. You may receive funds within 20 days.
• Microloan: Microloans are small SBA loans of up to $50,000. These loans are distributed by local community-based lenders. The average microloan amount is $13,000. The time to funding is similar to 7(a) loans.
• Disaster loan: The SBA offers low-interest loans to help businesses and nonprofits recover following a disaster. These loans can provide up to $2 million in funding. Approval can take two to four weeks, but the exact amount of time varies. The first loan disbursement follows within five days of closing.

What Is the Max Amount I Can Get With an SBA Loan?

SBA 7(a) loans and 504 loans are typically capped at $5 million. Certain projects related to energy efficiency and manufacturing may be eligible for 504 loans of up to $5.5 million each.

How to Speed Up the SBA Loan Processing Time

The SBA loan process requires patience, but you can take some steps to potentially make the process faster.

• Be prepared: Documentation is essential for the underwriting process. Research what kind of documentation you will need for the specific loan you want. Ensure that these documents, like your tax returns and other financials, are up to date. The more complete and current your documentation, the less likely the lender will need to ask you questions, which can slow the process during the underwriting.
• Select an SBA-preferred lender: SBA-preferred lenders are granted the authority to make final decisions on SBA loans. The time to funding may be faster because this type of lender does not have to wait for SBA approval.

What Is the Easiest SBA Loan to Get Approved For?

SBA microloans offer loans up to $50,000 for eligible borrowers. The funds are given out by nonprofit community-based lenders. Each microloan lender determines borrower eligibility. If a small business needs a smaller amount of money, then a microloan may be the easiest type of SBA loan to get.

What happens after an SBA loan is approved? You will receive your funds, and you will need to begin repayment as dictated by your loan’s terms.

Alternatives to SBA Loans

SBA loans are not the only funding option for small businesses. Alternatives include:

• Conventional loans: Many banks and credit unions offer small business loans outside of the SBA loan program. You can explore these options, but keep in mind that lenders offering traditional financing will still want to see a good track record from your business and good credit scores.
• Lines of credit: If you do not want to take out a loan, you can potentially secure a business line of credit. You can use the credit as needed, instead of taking a lump sum from a loan.
• Equity financing: Some small businesses, including startups, may find equity financing appealing. Investors, such as friends, family, or professionals, will buy ownership shares, which gives the company cash to grow.

How Long Does It Take to Get Approved for a Small Business Loan From a Bank?

The amount of time it takes to get approved for a small business loan varies, depending on many factors. You will need to spend the time applying. Next, the bank will conduct the underwriting process. If the loan is approved, the bank will fund it and move money into your account. The entire process can take days or more than a month.

How Long Does It Take to Get Approved for a Small Business Loan From an Online Lender?

Some online lenders offer same-day approval for business loans, but the amount of time it takes can differ. Just like a traditional bank, online lenders will use a variety of criteria to determine your eligibility for a loan.

Is It Easy to Get Approved for an SBA Loan?

It may be easier to qualify for an SBA loan than a traditional bank loan, but you still must meet certain eligibility criteria. For example, you must demonstrate creditworthiness and an ability to repay the loan.

How Can I Know If I am Approved for an SBA Loan?

Financial institutions, such as banks, work with the SBA to give out small business loans. Once you match with a lender and apply, that lender will inform you if your loan application is approved or denied.

What Is the Fastest SBA Loan I Can Get?

The SBA offers SBA Express loans as a part of the 7(a) loan program. This type of SBA loan offers an expedited application response time.

The Bottom Line

SBA loans can help small businesses get the funding they need to grow, but it can take months to go through the process, from applying to receiving the funding. If you need to access funds sooner, you can explore conventional lending options.

Reviewed by Andrew Schmidt

The term business analyst tends to be a generic job title in multiple industries. Although the job duties can vary immensely, these analysts generally work within a business or organization to identify and implement improvements to help a company achieve its goals. The title business analyst can describe both entry-level workers, and tenured professionals, and compensation varies accordingly. This article discusses the work, salary, and outlook for business analysts.

Key Takeaways

• The term business analyst is often a generic business title that is used in different industries.
• Data analysts, solutions providers, and researchers are often classified as business analysts.
• Some of the qualities of business analysts include listening skills, multitasking, and negotiation skills.
• People who want to work as business analysts should have an undergraduate degree in a suitable field.

What Do Business Analysts Do?

Business analysis is a disciplined, structured, and formal approach to analyzing a business process, identifying improvements, and implementing changes so that the business can better achieve its goals. It is based on facts, figures, and observations.

Business analysts can serve many functions in almost any industry. For example, a systems analyst is a business analyst who focuses on how to best use technology to solve problems and improve outcomes. Other job titles where an employee performs business analysis include data analyst, solutions provider, change agent, requirements manager, specifications writer, researcher, product owner, product manager, or management consultant.

Business analysts may perform quality assurance, requirements gathering, documentation, or client support. They may also specialize in improving sales by focusing on pre-sales, customer service, client relationships, and account management. Business analysts may also be very internally focused on process improvements within an organization and coordination across multiple departments and stakeholders. 

Note

The International Institute of Business Analysis says a business analyst works to “identify and define the solutions that will maximize the value delivered by an organization to its stakeholders. Business analysts work across all levels of an organization and may be involved in everything from defining strategy, to creating the enterprise architecture, to taking a leadership role by defining the goals and requirements for programs and projects or supporting continuous improvement in its technology and processes.”

Qualities of a Business Analyst

Some qualities of a good business analyst include the following:

• Good listening skills
• Openness to change
• Adept in multitasking
• Expertise in prioritization, based on the needs of multiple stakeholders
• Good negotiation skills, to seek timely buy-in on essential decisions and prioritization from all stakeholders
• Identifying process improvement opportunities, which can lead to efficiency and output improvements

Education and Career Path of Business Analyst

A bachelor’s degree or higher is typically required to find work as a business analyst. Possible majors include finance, technology, management, and accounting. Because of the number of necessary skills, most business analyst positions are not open to new college graduates. Most business analysts attain their first position after a few years in a related job such as data analyst, functional analyst, systems analyst, business requirements analyst, or financial analyst. 

The career path of a business analyst can include becoming a senior business analyst, a business analyst specialist in specific areas (such as SAP, Agile, or ScrumMaster), a business manager, a business architect, an enterprise architect, and finally a director or VP-level position. Other experienced business analysts become independent consultants, taking assignments on contract.

Almost any industry can employ business analysts, but most jobs are in information technology or management consulting firms. Other industries include accounting, investment banking, finance, and market research. 

Salary and Compensation for Business Analysts

The compensation varies widely and is determined by factors like location, experience level, and industry. For example, a business analyst working in a large New York-based investment bank will earn more than a business analyst performing market research for an automobile company in Michigan.

Candidates who specialize in a specific technology (like SAP) may command higher premiums. Below are the average salary ranges and bonus percentages for business analysts.

• Entry Level: $80,350
• Mid-Career: $87,399 
• Senior Level: $103,232
• U.S. Average: $85,600

What Are the Responsibilities of a Business Analyst?

That depends entirely on the industry and specific job. But, there are some general functions that all business analysts do, including reviewing trends, understanding and developing business strategies, planning, budgeting, forecasting, and identifying their firms’ needs and goals.

What Is the Salary Range for a Business Analyst?

The salary range of a business analyst depends on several factors. These include experience, geography, and the company among others. The average salary for business analysts in the United States is $85,600 according to Indeed.

What Qualifications Do I Need to Become a Business Analyst?

Business analysts generally need at least an undergraduate degree to get a job in their industry. Related work experience may also benefit them to get into their field or to advance in their careers. Specific requirements depend on the industry, which means if you’re looking for a job in finance, you should have a background and experience in that field. Pay can depend on experience, education, and other factors like certification and designations.

The Bottom Line

A business analyst is a general title for many different job functions in almost any industry. A good candidate should have an undergraduate degree and several years of work experience in the area of business analysis that they are interested in. Candidates can also take business analysis certification courses like those from the International Institute of Business Analysis.

Assets can be either commodities or securities, although it is less clear with digital assets

Fact checked by Suzanne Kvilhaug
Reviewed by Charlene Rhinehart

A commodity is a basic good that can be interchanged with other goods of the same type, often a raw material used in producing other goods or services. Meanwhile, a security describes a tradable financial instrument with monetary value.

While they are both assets that traders can buy and sell, securities receive stricter regulatory oversight than commodities. Companies that issue securities like stocks and bonds must provide investors with detailed, transparent information, while commodities are subject to less stringent reporting requirements.

The distinction between trading basic goods and trading financial instruments seems clear enough. However, when it comes to digital assets like cryptocurrency, the classification becomes murkier. Depending on your perspective, cryptocurrencies could be considered commodities or securities. How this debate is resolved could have a big impact on the future of crypto.

Key Takeaways

• A commodity is a basic good that can be exchanged with other goods of the same type, while a security is a financial instrument representing an investment in a common enterprise.
• Commodities are subject to less stringent regulations, while securities involve strict reporting requirements designed to ensure transparency for all investors.
• The classification of cryptocurrencies remains a subject of debate, and the determination of whether digital assets are commodities or securities could have widespread implications.

What Is a Commodity?

A commodity is a tangible product, often a raw material that can be used to make other products. Hard commodities include energy goods like oil and gas as well as metals like gold and silver, while soft commodities are generally agricultural goods like grains, livestock, and cotton. Traders can buy and sell commodities on the spot market or by using derivatives such as futures and options.

A lot of commodities trading takes place between companies that use the goods, like food producers that depend on agricultural products, and industrial companies that use metals. However, it is generally recommended that all investors have some exposure to commodities as part of a diversified portfolio. That’s because commodities tend to have a low or negative correlation with other assets like stocks and bonds, often performing well when other areas of the financial market are struggling. Commodities may also be a useful tool for investors aiming to hedge against inflation.

The Commodity Futures Trading Commission (CFTC) regulates the trading of derivatives in the U.S. When the commission was established in 1974, agricultural products dominated futures trading. Since then, the markets overseen by the CFTC have become more complex, with fintech and digital currencies underpinning more intricate commodities transactions.

What Is a Security?

A security is a fungible and tradable financial instrument issued by corporations and governments to raise capital. In general, securities represent equity (the rights to an ownership share in an enterprise), debt (loans that are repaid in periodic installments), or a hybrid of equity and debt.

Securities typically refer to stocks and bonds along with related products like mutual funds and exchange-traded funds (ETFs). However, the legal interpretation of what constitutes a financial security is quite broad. In the case of Howey vs. SEC in 1946, the Supreme Court determined that a contract involving the sale of agricultural land and services represented a security.

This case resulted in a list of criteria—known as the Howey Test—to determine whether instruments should be regulated as a security. According to federal laws, a financial contract meets the threshold of a security if there is an investment of money made in a common enterprise in anticipation of a profit driven by the efforts of others.

In the U.S., the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) regulates the buying and selling of instruments that meet the criteria to be classified as securities. Self-regulatory organizations (SROs) such as the National Association of Securities Dealers (NASD) and the Financial Industry Regulatory Authority (FINRA) also play a role in regulating securities.

When a corporation or government entity wants to raise capital from the public by issuing securities, it must follow strict reporting requirements set out by the SEC. These rules are designed to ensure transparency in the securities market, ensuring that investors have access to all the information they need to make informed decisions.

Key Differences Between Commodities and Securities

The fundamental difference between a commodity and a security hinges on what is being bought and sold. There’s also regulatory issues to consider. Here are the main differences between the two.

Definition and Nature

Commodities are raw materials or primary goods that are interchangeable with other goods of the same type, such as oil, gold, or agricultural products. They are primarily used for consumption or industrial production. Securities, on the other hand, represent financial ownership or a claim on an entity. They can’t really be used in manufacturing, as they usually just represent an intangible ownership stake.

Regulation and Oversight

The regulation of commodities and securities falls under different government agencies. In the United States, commodities are primarily regulated by the CFTC. Securities are regulated by the SEC.

Trading Markets

Commodities are mainly traded on specialized exchanges such as the CME or ICE. These exchanges facilitate futures contracts, which allow traders to buy and sell commodities at a predetermined price for future delivery. Securities are, instead, traded on stock exchanges like the NYSE or NASDAQ.

Price Determination

The price of commodities is primarily influenced by supply and demand dynamics. Factors like weather conditions, geopolitical events, and production levels can cause price fluctuations. For example, a drought can drive up the price of wheat, while increased oil production can lower fuel costs. Securities derive their prices from the financial performance and future prospects of the issuing company or government. Stock prices, in theory, are based on the future cash flow of a firm and not necessarily based on the supply and demand of the specific shares.

Tangibility

Commodities are physical goods that can be delivered and stored, making them tangible assets. Investors can purchase and take possession of commodities like gold bars or barrels of oil, though most trading occurs through contracts rather than direct ownership. Securities, meanwhile, are intangible financial instruments that represent ownership or a claim. Though you can physically hold a piece of paper that might represent a security, you can’t touch the actual security in the same way you can a commodity.

Role in the Economy

Commodities are used in the global supply chain since they are used in manufacturing, energy production, and consumer goods. Their availability and prices affect industries ranging from agriculture to technology, and they play an important part as an input into the global economy. Securities, instead, are mainly used by companies to raise capital. They’re also used by investors to generate wealth.

Note

Whether cryptocurrency is classified as a commodity or a security depends on the specific digital asset and how it is used.

Is Cryptocurrency a Commodity or Security?

The differentiation between commodities and securities may seem relatively straightforward when it comes to traditional assets like gold and oil or stocks and bonds. However, digital assets like cryptocurrencies have stretched the delineation between the two types of assets.

The debate over whether cryptocurrencies constitute commodities or securities remains unresolved. In fact, the intricacies of the question may make it impractical to come up with a one-size-fits-all solution, with some cryptocurrency tokens presenting characteristics more like commodities, while there are valid arguments for considering some cryptocurrencies as securities.

The ultimate determination of how to classify crypto will likely have a significant impact on how digital assets are regulated and determine the future of the cryptocurrency industry.

Cryptocurrencies as Commodities

Since securities are subject to tighter regulations, it may come as no surprise that crypto industry executives and proponents argue that cryptocurrencies should be considered commodities. According to their perspective, cryptocurrencies are used as a store of value, similar to commodities like gold. Traders and investors may purchase crypto assets for speculative purposes—hoping to profit from price swings—which is another way that cryptocurrencies mirror commodities.

Another key argument that cryptocurrencies should not be considered securities revolves around their decentralized nature. The Howey test specifies that a security involves investing in a common enterprise and profiting from the efforts of a third party. The lack of a centralized entity underlying cryptocurrencies supports the idea that they should be classified as commodities rather than securities.

Cryptocurrencies as Securities

Although crypto advocates generally argue against the more stringent regulations that would come from classifying the digital assets as securities, subjecting crypto to securities rules could make the assets more attractive to a wider range of investors.

In addition, there are some elements of the cryptocurrency markets that seem to fall closer in line with the definition of a security. For instance, when blockchain or crypto-related companies raise capital through initial coin offerings (ICOs), they issue digital coins that allow investors to participate in the crypto project and earn a share of its profits. Therefore, ICOs resemble the initial public offerings (IPOs) that companies use to bring their stock onto the public markets, lending credence to the idea that they should be similarly regulated as securities.

Other areas of the crypto markets are reminiscent of debt securities. For example, crypto lenders may provide credit in the form of cryptocurrency in exchange for interest or fees—a structure that closely resembles bonds.

Is Bitcoin a Security or a Commodity?

There is an ongoing debate about whether Bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies should be classified as a security or a commodity. The decentralized nature of Bitcoin raises questions about whether the asset meets the criteria of the Howey Test that would classify it as a security. The Commodity Futures Trading Commission (CFTC) considers Bitcoin to be a commodity and asserts that it holds regulatory authority over BTC under the Commodity Exchange Act.

Is Ethereum a Commodity or Security?

Much like Bitcoin, Ethereum remains in a regulatory grey area and subject to differences in opinion about its classification. When it filed its lawsuit against Binance, the CFTC explicitly declared that Ethereum, along with Bitcoin and Litecoin, are considered commodities. However, the SEC has applied the Howey Test and argued that other crypto tokens such as Ripple’s XRP are securities and should be subject to the associated regulations.

Why Is a Commodity Not a Security?

Commodities—such as energy assets like oil, metals like gold, and agriculture products like corn—are not considered securities because they do not involve investing in a common enterprise and profiting from the efforts of others.

Can a Commodity Become a Security?

Commodities can serve as the underlying asset for derivatives such as futures and options. Futures establish an obligation to buy or sell a commodity at a set price and date in the future, while options provide holders with the right (but not the obligation) to buy or sell the commodity.

The Bottom Line

Assets are traditionally classified as either commodities, which are basic goods used in making other products, or securities, which are financial instruments designed to generate profits from a shared enterprise. Digital assets like cryptocurrencies have stretched the limits of these categorizations, with different perspectives on how to classify digital assets. A concrete determination on whether crypto counts as a commodity or a security could have broad implications for the regulatory framework and the future of cryptocurrencies.

Fact checked by Vikki Velasquez
Reviewed by Andy Smith

In the United Kingdom, there are three primary ways to accumulate pension funds to provide a steady income upon retirement. Those types are the government-backed State Pension, the employer-sponsored workplace pensions, and the individually established personal pensions. Depending on how the plan pays out, these plans are further divided into Tier 1 and Tier 2.

Key Takeaways

• Understanding pension types, eligibility, and contribution requirements is important for achieving financial stability in retirement.
• The U.K. State Pension requires reaching pension age and making sufficient National Insurance (NI) contributions, while workplace pensions depend on employment status and earnings.
• Employers in the U.K. are generally required to enroll eligible employees into workplace pensions, with both parties contributing.
• U.K. personal pensions may be an ideal option for self-employed individuals or those seeking additional retirement savings, as they are flexible and open to almost anyone in the country.

Breakdown of Types of Pensions in the U.K.

The U.K. offers three main pension types: the State Pension, workplace pensions, and personal pensions:

• The State Pension is government-provided, with eligibility based on National Insurance contributions and age.
• Workplace pensions are set up by employers and include defined benefit and defined contribution plans.
• Personal pensions are independently managed private schemes, including stakeholder pensions and self-invested personal pensions (SIPPs).

It’s crucial to understand all these options for effective retirement planning in the U.K. Consider seeking financial advice for personalized guidance.

State Pension

A State Pension is a government-provided pension that you receive when you reach the State Pension age—currently 66 for both men and women. The State Pension amount received depends on your National Insurance (NI) contributions record. There are two types of State Pension:

• Basic State Pension: For people who reached the State Pension age before April 6, 2016.
• New State Pension: For people who reach the State Pension age on or after April 6, 2016.

Note

Retirement benefits are the financial compensation or perks that an individual receives after they retire from their job. These benefits can include pensions, social insurance or Social Security payments, and other forms of savings or investment accounts intended to provide income during retirement.

Workplace Pensions

Also known as occupational pensions, these are now required to be set up by employers to provide retirement benefits for their employees in the U.K. There are two main types of U.K. workplace pensions:

• Defined benefit (DB) schemes: Also known as final salary pensions, these guarantee a specific income in retirement based on your salary and years of service with the employer.
• Defined contribution (DC) schemes: In these plans, both you and your employer contribute to your pension savings, and the amount is then invested. The size of your pension depends on the amount contributed and the investment performance.

Personal Pensions

Personal pensions in the U.K. are individual pension schemes, usually defined contribution plans, available to anyone, including those who are self-employed. They are designed to help individuals save money for retirement and offer flexibility in terms of contributions and investment options.

These are private pension schemes that you can set up independently of an employer, or through some workplaces. They are typically managed by insurance companies, banks, or investment firms. You can choose from various investment options, and the eventual pension payout depends on the contributions made and investment performance. Personal pensions generally include:

• Stakeholder pensions: These are low-fee, flexible personal pensions with minimum standards set by the government.
• Self-invested personal pensions (SIPPs): These offer a wider range of investment options compared with traditional personal pensions, allowing you greater control over your pension investments.

Setting Up a Pension in the U.K.

Setting up a pension in the U.K. typically involves the following steps:

• Check eligibility: Confirm if you’re eligible for the State Pension, workplace pensions, or personal pensions based on age, employment, and residency.
• Enroll in a workplace pension: Employers automatically enroll eligible employees into a pension scheme and contribute on their behalf.
• Choose a personal pension: Self-employed individuals or those seeking additional savings can set up a personal pension. Make sure to compare providers, fees, and investment options.
• Make regular contributions: Fund your pension through salary deductions for workplace pensions or direct payments for personal pensions. The State Pension relies on National Insurance contributions.
• Monitor investments: Review and adjust your investments in defined contribution workplace pensions and personal pensions to align with your retirement goals.
• Seek financial advice: Consult a financial advisor for personalized guidance on pension options, investments, and tax implications to maximize your retirement savings.

Remember that setting up a pension is an ongoing process that requires regular monitoring, adjustments, and contributions throughout your working life to ensure a comfortable retirement.

Important

Retirement savings are the funds that an individual sets aside during their working years to provide financial security during retirement. These savings can come from various sources, such as employer-sponsored plans, personal savings accounts, or other investment vehicles designed to help individuals save money for their future.

Who Is Eligible for a Pension in the U.K.?

Eligibility for pensions in the U.K. depends on the type of pension scheme. Here’s a breakdown of eligibility criteria for the main pension types:

State Pension: You must have reached the State Pension age, which is currently 66 for both men and women. You need to have made sufficient National Insurance (NI) contributions or have received NI credits. For the new State Pension, you typically need at least 10 qualifying years on your NI record to receive any payment. The years don’t need to be consecutive.

Workplace pensions: You must be employed by a company that offers a workplace pension scheme. Automatic enrollment criteria: Age from 22 to the State Pension age, earning more than £10,000 per year, and working in the U.K. Employees not meeting these criteria may still be eligible to join the scheme voluntarily.

Personal pensions: There are no specific eligibility criteria for personal pensions, as they are open to anyone looking to save for retirement. Both employed and self-employed individuals can set up a personal pension. Age restrictions may apply, depending on the pension provider and their terms.

It’s essential to understand the eligibility criteria for different pension schemes to plan your retirement effectively. If you’re unsure about your eligibility, consider seeking professional financial advice.

U.K. Pension Withdrawals

In the U.K., the minimum age for accessing private pension funds is currently 55, set to rise to 57 in 2028 under the Finance Act 2021. This applies to defined contribution pensions and self-invested personal pensions, allowing individuals to begin withdrawing their savings before reaching the State Pension age.

The State Pension itself, governed by the Pensions Act 2014, is typically accessible from age 66, increasing to 67 by 2028. Early access before the minimum age is only permitted under exceptional circumstances, such as terminal illness, and may be subject to significant tax penalties.

Pension withdrawals can be structured in different ways, with many opting for a tax-free lump sum and an income drawdown plan. Income drawdown, introduced as part of pension freedoms under the Taxation of Pensions Act 2014, allows retirees to withdraw income while keeping the remainder invested flexibly. However, those who take lump sums beyond the 25% tax-free threshold must adhere to the Money Purchase Annual Allowance, which limits further tax-efficient pension contributions. Retirees also have the option to purchase annuities, which provide a guaranteed income for life, as regulated under the Pension Schemes Act 2015.

Pension Protection and Risks

The Pension Protection Fund (PPF) was established under the Pensions Act 2004 to safeguard members of eligible defined benefit pension schemes when their employers face insolvency and the pension scheme lacks sufficient assets to meet its obligations. Funding for the PPF is sourced from levies imposed on eligible pension schemes, returns on investments, assets from transferred schemes, and recoveries from insolvent employers.

In contrast, defined contribution pension plans accumulate funds based on contributions from employers and employees, which are then invested in various assets. Members of defined contribution schemes are exposed to market risks; fluctuations in investment markets can directly affect the value of their pension pots. This means that individuals bear the investment risk, and poor market performance can lead to reduced retirement income.

Do All British Citizens Get a Pension?

No, not all British citizens get a pension. Eligibility for different pension types depends on factors like age, National Insurance contributions, and employment status.

How Many Years Do I Have to Work in the U.K. to Get a Pension?

For the new State Pension, you typically need at least 10 qualifying years on your National Insurance record to receive any payment.

How Much Is the State Pension in England?

The (full new) State Pension in England as of June 2023 is £203.85 per week.

Can I Still Get My Pension If I Live Outside the U.K.?

Yes, you can still receive your pension while living abroad, but the payment rules and annual increases may vary depending on the country and the type of pension.

The Bottom Line

U.K. pension schemes help secure financial stability during retirement. The three main types are the State Pension, funded by National Insurance contributions; workplace pensions, where employers are required to enroll and contribute for eligible employees; and personal pensions, available to anyone, including self-employed individuals. Understanding eligibility criteria and contribution requirements is essential for effective retirement planning.