Investopedia

KEY TAKEAWAYS

• Warren Buffett said in a rare TV interview that tariffs are an “act of war” and could cause inflation.
• The legendary investor and CEO of conglomerate Berkshire Hathaway made those comments Sunday in an interview with CBS News for a documentary on Katherine Graham, the late publisher of The Washington Post.
• President Donald Trump last week said that he plans to impose 25% tariffs on products from Mexico and Canada beginning Tuesday, and would double tariffs on China to 20%.

Warren Buffett said in a rare TV interview that tariffs are an “act of war” and could cause inflation.

The legendary investor and CEO of conglomerate Berkshire Hathaway (BRK.A)(BRK.B) made those comments Sunday in an interview with CBS News for a documentary on Katherine Graham, the late publisher of The Washington Post.

Responding to a question from Norah O’Donnell about how he thought tariffs would affect the economy, the 94-year-old Buffett said, “Tariffs are actually, we’ve had a lot of experience with ’em. They’re an act of war, to some degree.”

When asked how tariffs would impact inflation, Buffett said, “Over time, they’re a tax on goods. I mean, the Tooth Fairy doesn’t pay ’em! And then what? You always have to ask that question in economics. You always say, ‘And then what?'”

The “Oracle of Omaha” added that “prices will be higher 10 years from now, and 20 years from now, and 30 years from now.”  

President Donald Trump said last week that he plans to impose 25% tariffs on products from Mexico and Canada beginning Tuesday, and that the U.S. would raise double tariffs on goods from China to 20%.  

Fact checked by Vikki Velasquez
Reviewed by Julius Mansa

We know water is the source of life. But it can also be a source for portfolio diversification. Like gold and oil, water is a commodity—and it happens to be rather scarce nowadays. Investors can gain exposure to the commodity through brokers who offer water indexes, mutual funds, and exchange-traded funds. So, as with any other scarcity, the water shortage creates investment opportunities.

Key Takeaways

• Water is arguably the most important resource on planet Earth.
• Shortages of water can lead to social, political, and economic disruption.
• Water is increasingly scarce, due to climate change, pollution, and increasing demand.
• Because of its importance, investors can diversify their portfolios by acquiring water-related assets and investments.
• There are multiple indexes, mutual funds, and ETFs that allow retail investors to gain exposure to water-related securities.

Understanding Water Investments

The investment case for water is simple: water is one of the most important resources, and it is likely to become a lot scarcer. About 70% of the earth’s surface is covered in water, but over 97% is saltwater. Saltwater cannot be used for drinking, crop irrigation, or most industrial uses. Of the remaining 3% of the world’s water resources, only about 1% is readily available for human consumption.

Rapid industrialization and increasing agricultural use have contributed to worldwide water shortages. Areas that have experienced a lack of H₂O include China, Egypt, India, Israel, Pakistan, Mexico, most of Africa, and the United States (Arizona, New Mexico, California, and West Texas), to name but a few.

Pollution also highlights the need for clean water. The dead zone off the Gulf Coast highlights the impact of fertilizer runoff, and methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE), an additive in unleaded gasoline, can be found in well water from California to Maryland.

Overseas, highly publicized incidents in Russia, China, and elsewhere demonstrate that pollution isn’t limited to the West. Of course, fouled water supplies further restrict the amount of fresh water available for human use.

$55 Billion Investment in Clean Water

On Nov. 15, 2021, President Biden signed into law the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act. The bipartisan infrastructure bill authorizes $1.2 trillion in spending, which includes $55 billion allocated to create clean drinking water, $65 billion in clean energy, and $21 billion to clean up hazardous, polluted sites.
The legislation is good news to clean water advocates since it will expand access to clean drinking water for households, businesses, schools, and child care centers in cities and rural areas. The legislation will also invest in water infrastructure to eliminate lead service pipes.

Water Investment Indexes

Here are some of the more popular indexes designed to track various water-related investment opportunities:

• The Dow Jones U.S. Water Index is composed of various water-related companies in the U.S.
• The ISE Clean Edge Water Index was launched in December 2000 and represents water distribution, water filtration, flow technology, and other companies specializing in water-related solutions. It contains 36 stocks.
• The S&P 1500 Water Utilities Index is a sub-sector of the Standard & Poor’s 1500 Utilities Index that includes water-related companies in the larger index.
• The S&P Global Water Index is an index that began in 2001 and contains 100 companies worldwide; its water-related businesses fall into two areas: water utilities and infrastructure and water equipment and materials.

The MSCI Global Sustainable Water Index provides another look at the water industry from an international perspective. The index focuses on developed and emerging companies that earn at least 50% of their revenue from sustainable water products and services. There are also a variety of utility indexes that include some water stocks.

720 Million

The number of people in the world, 10% of the global population, who live in countries with high and critical water stress levels.

How to Invest in Water Securities

Firms seeking to profit from water-related businesses include beverage providers, utilities, water treatment/purification firms, and equipment makers, such as those that provide pumps, valves, and desalination units.

A look at the holdings of any of these water indexes provides an easy way to start looking for suitable investment opportunities. Companies from blue-chip stalwart General Electric to small-cap Layne Christensen are all seeking a piece of the water market. In addition to direct stock purchases, some of the larger firms offer dividend reinvestment plans.

The bottled water market continues to grow. In the U.S., per capita consumption of bottled water in 2023 was 46.4 gallons per capita compared with 31.6 gallons per capita in 2013. According to a 2018 UN study, 177 countries rely on desalination for at least part of their freshwater consumption needs. Companies in these industries can be added to your portfolio to gain water exposure.

If stock picking doesn’t interest you, ETFs, mutual funds, and unit investment trusts (UITs) also provide plenty of opportunities to invest in water.

The Invesco Water Resources ETF (PHO) “tracks the performance of U.S. exchange-listed companies that create products designed to conserve and purify water for homes, businesses, and industries.” The fund has 40 holdings as of Feb. 28, 2025.

The iShares U.S. Utilities ETF (IDU) provides some exposure to water-related stocks. Other alternatives include the Invesco Global Water Portfolio ETF (PIO), which tracks the Nasdaq OMX Global Water Index, and the First Trust Water ETF (FIW). Benchmarked to the MSCI ACWI Index, the Allianz Global Water Fund invests in improving the supply, quality, and efficiency of water resource management.

How Do You Invest in Water As a Commodity?

The Chicago Mercantile Exchange has tradeable water futures that are tied to water prices in California. These futures contracts allow investors to bet on the future value of the Nasdaq Veles California Water Index, effectively betting on the future price of water.

How Is Michael Burry Investing in Water?

At the conclusion of “The Big Short,” it is revealed that Scion Capital founder Michael Burry followed up his successful short trade with investments in water. In later interviews, Burry explained that “food is the way to invest in water. That is, grow food in water-rich areas and transport it for sale in water-poor areas.” Farmland in high-precipitation areas is effectively a bet on water’s future value. However, for retail investors, it may be easier to focus on water stocks.

How Do You Invest in Water Stocks?

Water stocks are stocks of companies whose business is closely tied to irrigation, utilities, water treatment, or other water-related industries. One can invest in these by buying the stocks of individual companies, or by investing in a mutual fund or ETF with high exposure to water stocks.

The Bottom Line

There is demand for investments that profit from the need for fresh, clean water. As this is expected to continue, investors should see a host of new investments that provide exposure to this precious commodity and to the firms that deliver it to the marketplace.

There are currently numerous ways to add water exposure to your portfolio; most simply require a bit of research. Opportunities to invest in this scarce resource are flowing freely.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

• Prices of bitcoin and a slew of cryptocurrency stocks are jumping Monday, after U.S. President Donald Trump announced that the token, as well as four others, could be included in a strategic crypto reserve for the United States. 
• In two Sunday posts on Truth Social, Trump said that the reserve would include bitcoin, ether, XRP, Solana’s SOL token as well as Cardano’s ADA.
• On Monday morning, bitcoin, which had hit a high of around $109,000 in January, was trading around $92,000.

Prices of bitcoin (BTCUSD) and a slew of cryptocurrency stocks are jumping Monday, after U.S. President Donald Trump announced that the token, as well as four others, could be included in a strategic crypto reserve for the United States.

In two Sunday posts on Truth Social, Trump said such a reserve would include bitcoin, ether (ETHUSD), XRP (XRPUSD) , Solana’s (SOLUSD) SOL token as well as Cardano’s ADA (ADAUSD).

“A U.S. Crypto Reserve will elevate this critical industry after years of corrupt attacks by the Biden Administration, which is why my Executive Order on Digital Assets directed the Presidential Working Group to move forward on a Crypto Strategic Reserve that includes XRP, SOL, and ADA,” Trump said in a post on his social media platform Sunday. “I will make sure the U.S. is the Crypto Capital of the World.”

He said that bitcoin and ether will be “at the heart of the Reserve.“

Bitcoin Comes Off Last Week’s Around $80k Levels

Trump in January had signed an executive order to establish U.S. dominance in the digital asset market. He had promoted the idea of creating such a reserve on the campaign trail, saying that cryptocurrency the government seized during criminal prosecutions would serve as the core of a “Strategic National Bitcoin Stockpile” and that his policy would be never to sell it.

On Monday morning, bitcoin, which had hit a high of around $109,000 in January and flagged last week on Trump’s tariffs pledge, was up more than 8% at around $93,000 while ether had gained around 7%, Solana more than 13%, XRP more than 16%, and cardano more than 50%.

Shares in trading app Robinhood (HOOD) are rising more than 7% in premarket trading Monday. Cryptocurrency exchange Coinbase Global (COIN) was up more than 8%, Marathon Digital parent company MARA Holdings (MARA), bitcoin mining and infrastructure company Riot Platforms Inc. (RIOT) and bitcoin treasury company Strategy (MSTR), formerly known as MicroStrategy, are all rising at least 10%.

KEY TAKEAWAYS

• Warren Buffett said in a rare TV interview that President Donald Trump’s tariffs are an “act of war” and could cause inflation.
• The legendary investor and CEO of conglomerate Berkshire Hathaway made those comments Sunday in an interview with CBS News for a documentary on Katherine Graham, the late publisher of The Washington Post.
• President Trump last week said that he plans to impose 25% tariffs on products from Mexico and Canada beginning Tuesday, and would double tariffs on China to 20%.

Warren Buffett said in a rare TV interview that President Donald Trump’s tariffs are an “act of war” and could cause inflation.

The legendary investor and CEO of conglomerate Berkshire Hathaway (BRK.A)(BRK.B) made those comments Sunday in an interview with CBS News for a documentary on Katherine Graham, the late publisher of The Washington Post.

Responding to a question from Norah O’Donnell about how he thought tariffs would affect the economy, the 94-year-old Buffett said, “Tariffs are actually, we’ve had a lot of experience with ’em. They’re an act of war, to some degree.”

When asked how tariffs would impact inflation, Buffett said, “Over time, they’re a tax on goods. I mean, the Tooth Fairy doesn’t pay ’em! And then what? You always have to ask that question in economics. You always say, ‘And then what?'”

The “Oracle of Omaha” added that “prices will be higher 10 years from now, and 20 years from now, and 30 years from now.”  

President Trump said last week that he plans to impose 25% tariffs on products from Mexico and Canada beginning Tuesday, and that the U.S. would raise double tariffs on goods from China to 20%.  

Reviewed by Margaret James
Fact checked by Amanda Jackson

Reverse Mortgage vs. Forward Mortgage: An Overview

A forward mortgage is a mortgage loan used to purchase a home that typically involves a fixed interest rate and monthly payments. Conversely, a reverse mortgage allows homeowners 62 and older to convert their home equity into cash, getting paid by the lender via monthly payments, a credit line, or a lump sum.

With a forward mortgage, your loan balance decreases as you make payments, increasing your home equity. However, your loan balance with a reverse mortgage increases due to your withdrawals, reducing your home equity. The reverse mortgage lender also charges interest and fees that are added to the loan balance, reducing your equity. The reverse mortgage gets repaid when the homeowner passes away, sells or leaves the home.

Both forward and reverse mortgages are significant financial commitments that use your home as collateral. A homeowner might use their home as collateral twice in a lifetime, getting a forward mortgage to purchase the home and, decades later, a reverse mortgage to withdraw income from the home. Discover the similarities and differences between a forward mortgage and a reverse mortgage.

Key Takeaways

• Reverse and forward mortgages are large loans that use your home as collateral.
• Forward mortgages, more commonly just called mortgages, are loans used to purchase a home.
• Reverse mortgages, which require you to be 62 years old or older, allow homeowners with large amounts of equity in their home to borrow a lump sum or annuity-like payment.
• Reverse mortgages have no monthly payments, and the balance—plus interest—is due when the borrower dies, sells the home, or moves.

Important

Only people aged 62 and above are eligible to get a reverse mortgage.

Reverse Mortgage

A reverse mortgage allows homeowners to withdraw their home equity value and get paid via a lender as a lump sum, monthly annuity, or line of credit. The funds from a reverse mortgage can be used without restrictions, including to pay medical expenses, debt consolidation, home repairs, and supplement income.

Reverse Mortgage Costs

The accumulated debt, interest, and fees on a reverse mortgage are due when the mortgage holder moves, sells the home, or dies. Like a traditional forward mortgage, you will pay closing costs for a reverse mortgage.

One of the costs includes the mortgage insurance premium (MIP) paid to the lender, which is 2% of the home value paid upfront at the loan closing and 0.5% of the outstanding loan balance paid annually thereafter.

Other costs include third-party charges, such as appraisal, title search, and insurance fees as well as property taxes. The lender charges an origination fee to process the loan, which is the greater of $2,500 or 2% of the first $200,000 of your home’s value and 1% over $200,000 but are capped at $6,000.

Federally Regulated

The federal government regulates reverse mortgages to prevent predatory lenders from snaring senior citizens. The bank may not demand a payment that exceeds the value of the home. The bank recoups any losses through an insurance fund, which is one of the costs of the reverse mortgage.

The Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) oversees the most common reverse mortgage, called a home equity conversion mortgage (HECM), which is issued through private lenders but insured by the Federal Housing Administration (FHA).

Warning

Mortgage lending discrimination is illegal. If you think you’ve been discriminated against based on race, religion, sex, marital status, use of public assistance, national origin, disability, or age, there are steps you can take. One such step is to file a report to the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau or the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD).

Forward Mortgage

A forward mortgage is a loan used to buy a home or real estate, which is typically a fixed-rate 30-year term. As you make payments, your loan balance decreases, increasing your home equity. Other mortgage products exist that include a 15-year or 20-year term, as well as adjustable-rate mortgages that have a variable interest rate for a portion of the term.

Borrowers may get a better interest rate and save a substantial amount in interest over time if they go for a 10- or 15-year mortgage. However, the shorter the term, the higher the monthly payment. Like a reverse mortgage, the home serves as collateral for a forward mortgage loan.

Closing Costs and Down Payment

With a forward mortgage, closing costs usually include a down payment based on a percentage of the home’s value. Typically, mortgage lenders require 20% down, paid at the closing.

However, programs exist for first-time homebuyers through the Federal Housing Administration (FHA), which insures mortgage loans, protecting lenders. This protection allows lenders to offer a lower down payment by as low as 3.5% for qualified buyers. The FHA insures its loans, protecting the lender, but you must go through an FHA-approved lender.

Risks of Borrowing Too Much

The mortgage system is based on the assumption that real estate increases in value over time. That is often the case, but not always, for example, when the housing bubble burst in 2008. As of 2010, over 23% of homes were underwater, according to Housing Wire, but the state of financing has improved in the decade since then. As of the third quarter of 2024, (the most recently available data), 1.8% of American mortgaged homes—or 990,000 homes—were underwater according to Housing Wire and CoreLogic’s Homeowner Equity Insights report. That means that the owners of those homes must continue to pay inflated mortgages or pay their banks 25% or more above their homes’ assessed value when they sell.

Speaking of getting into trouble, during the housing boom, it became common for homeowners to obtain a line of credit, using their homes as collateral in addition to their mortgages. Both the homeowners and their bankers assumed that the significant increases in home values would keep going. When the bust came, homeowners got stuck holding the double debt for the mortgage and the line of credit.

Reverse Mortgage vs. Forward Mortgage Example

A married couple, each about 30 years old, buys a home with a small down payment. They are promising to pay the money back in small monthly increments of principal plus interest over a period of years. Thirty years is traditionally the standard.

More than 30 years later, the same couple lives in the same house, having paid off the mortgage in full. Even with their combined Social Security benefits and retirement savings, it’s difficult to make ends meet, so they take out a reverse mortgage. They’ll pay nothing upfront and get a monthly check to supplement their income. They never pay off the mortgage or the interest and costs that accrue over the years. However, the loan must be repaid when they pass away, sell the home, or leave the home.

What Is a Forward Mortgage?

A forward mortgage, or mortgage, is a loan with a fixed rate of interest used to purchase a home. A forward mortgage loan has a fixed monthly payment, with a portion of each payment going to pay the principal (the borrowed amount) and interest. Typically, a forward mortgage has a loan term of 15, 20, or 30 years.

What Is a Reverse Mortgage?

A reverse mortgage allows those 62 years or older to take out a loan using their home as collateral. The equity or home ownership built up in your home can be cashed out via a monthly payment stream, credit line, or lump-sum payment.

Unlike a traditional mortgage, you don’t make monthly payments on a reverse mortgage. Instead, you repay the loan when you sell the home, no longer live in the home, or pass away. In return, the mortgage lender charges interest and fees by adding them to the loan balance, reducing your home equity.

What Are the Downsides of a Reverse Mortgage?

The downsides to a reverse mortgage include interest and fees charged to the loan balance by the lender, which reduces your home equity. Also, the more money you get paid from a reverse mortgage, the faster your home equity decreases.

You must still pay for the property taxes, homeowners insurance, and upkeep of the property. However, the biggest downsides include running out of money or equity, and you may receive less if you sell the home due to the reverse mortgage loan balance.

The Bottom Line

With a forward mortgage, or mortgage loan, you borrow money to buy a home and, in return, make monthly payments to the lender who charges you a fixed rate of interest on the loan. Once you pay off the loan, you own the home.

Conversely, a reverse mortgage allows those 62 and older to get paid using their home’s equity via monthly payments, a credit line, or a lump sum. In return, the lender charges interest and fees, which get added to the loan balance, reducing your home’s equity. You repay the reverse mortgage when you sell or leave the home. Both a forward and reverse mortgage use your home as collateral for the loan.

Reviewed by Samantha Silberstein

A mortgage is a long-term loan designed to help you buy a house. In addition to repaying the principal, you also have to make interest payments to the lender. The home and land around it serve as collateral. But if you are looking to own a home, you need to know more than these generalities. This concept also applies to businesses, especially concerning fixed costs and shutdown points.

Key Takeaways

• Mortgage payments are made up of your principal and interest payments.
• If you make a down payment of less than 20%, you will be required to take out private mortgage insurance, which increases your monthly payment.
• Some payments also include real estate or property taxes.
• A borrower pays more interest in the early part of the mortgage, while the latter part favors the principal balance.
• Making a larger down payment will immediately boost the equity in your home.

Mortgages

Just about everyone who buys a house has a mortgage. Mortgage rates are frequently mentioned on the evening news, and speculation about which direction rates will move has become a standard part of the financial culture.

The modern mortgage came into being in 1934 when the government—to help the country overcome the Great Depression—created a mortgage program that minimized the required down payment on a home, increasing the amount potential homeowners could borrow. Before that, a 50% down payment was required.

In general, a 20% down payment is desirable, mostly because if your down payment is less than 20%, you are required to take out private mortgage insurance (PMI), making your monthly payments higher. Desirable, however, is not necessarily achievable. There are mortgage programs available that allow significantly lower down payments, but if you can manage that 20%, you definitely should.

The main factors determining your monthly mortgage payments are the size and term of the loan. Size is the amount of money you borrow and the term is the length of time you have to pay it back. Generally, the longer your term, the lower your monthly payment. That’s why 30-year mortgages are the most popular. Once you know the size of the loan you need for your new home, a mortgage calculator is an easy way to compare mortgage types and various lenders.

PITI: Mortgage Payment Components

There are four factors that play a role in the calculation of a mortgage payment: principal, interest, taxes, and insurance (PITI). As we look at them, we’ll use a $100,000 mortgage as an example.

Principal

A portion of each mortgage payment is dedicated to repayment of the principal balance. Loans are structured so the amount of principal returned to the borrower starts out low and increases with each mortgage payment. The payments in the first years are applied more to interest than principal, while the payments in the final years reverse that scenario. For our $100,000 mortgage, the principal is $100,000.

Interest

Interest is the lender’s reward for taking a risk and loaning you money. The interest rate on a mortgage has a direct impact on the size of a mortgage payment: Higher interest rates mean higher mortgage payments.

Higher interest rates generally reduce the amount of money you can borrow, and lower interest rates increase it. If the interest rate on our $100,000 mortgage is 6%, the combined principal and interest monthly payment on a 30-year mortgage would be about $599.55—$500 interest + $99.55 principal. The same loan with a 9% interest rate results in a monthly payment of $804.62.

Taxes

Real estate or property taxes are assessed by government agencies and used to fund public services such as schools, police forces, and fire departments. Taxes are calculated by the government on a per-year basis, but you can pay these taxes as part of your monthly payments. The amount due is divided by the total number of monthly mortgage payments in a given year. The lender collects the payments and holds them in escrow until the taxes have to be paid.

Insurance

Like real estate taxes, insurance payments are made with each mortgage payment and held in escrow until the bill is due. There are comparisons made in this process to level premium insurance.

Two types of insurance coverage may be included in a mortgage payment. One is property insurance, which protects the home and its contents from fire, theft, and other disasters. The other is PMI, which is mandatory for people who buy a home with a down payment of less than 20% of the cost. This type of insurance protects the lender if the borrower is unable to repay the loan.

Because it minimizes the default risk on the loan, PMI also enables lenders to sell the loan to investors, who can have some assurance that their debt investment will be paid back to them. PMI coverage can be dropped once the borrower has at least 20% equity in the home.

While principal, interest, taxes, and insurance make up the typical mortgage, some people opt for mortgages that do not include taxes or insurance as part of the monthly payment. With this type of loan, you have a lower monthly payment, but you must pay the taxes and insurance.

Important

Mortgage insurance may be canceled once the balance reaches 78% of the original value.

The Amortization Schedule

A mortgage’s amortization schedule provides a detailed look at what portion of each mortgage payment is dedicated to each component of PITI. As noted earlier, the first year’s mortgage payments consist primarily of interest payments, while later payments consist primarily of principal.

In our example of a $100,000, 30-year mortgage, the amortization schedule has 360 payments. The partial schedule shown below demonstrates how the balance between principal and interest payments reverses over time, moving toward greater application to the principal.

Payment	Principal	Interest	Principal Balance
1	$99.55	$500.00	$99,900.45
12	$105.16	$494.39	$98,772.00
180	$243.09	$356.46	$71,048.96
360	$597.00	$2.99	$0

As the chart shows, each payment is $599.55, but the amount dedicated to principal and interest changes. At the start of your mortgage, the rate at which you gain equity in your home is much slower. This is why it can be good to make extra principal payments if the mortgage permits you to do so without a prepayment penalty. They reduce your principal which, in turn, reduces the interest due on each future payment, moving you toward your ultimate goal: paying off the mortgage.

On the other hand, the interest is the part that’s tax-deductible to the extent permitted by law; if you itemize your deductions instead of taking the standard deduction.

Note

FHA-backed mortgages, which allow people with low credit scores to become homeowners, only require a minimum 3.5% down payment.

Your First Mortgage Payment

The first mortgage payment is due one full month after the last day of the month in which the home purchase closed. Unlike rent, due on the first day of the month for that month, mortgage payments are paid in arrears, on the first day of the month but for the previous month.

Say a closing occurs on Jan. 25. The closing costs will include the accrued interest until the end of January. The first full mortgage payment, which is for February, is then due March 1. For example, let’s assume you take an initial mortgage of $240,000 on a $300,000 purchase with a 20% down payment.

Your monthly payment is $1,077.71 under a 30-year fixed-rate mortgage with a 3.5% interest rate. This calculation only includes principal and interest but does not include property taxes and insurance.

Your daily interest is $23.01. This is calculated by first multiplying the $240,000 loan by the 3.5% interest rate, then dividing by 365. If the mortgage closes on Jan. 25, you owe $161.10 for the seven days of accrued interest for the remainder of the month. The next monthly payment, the full monthly payment of $1,077.71, is due on March 1 and covers the February mortgage payment.

You should have all this information in advance. Under the TILA-RESPA Integrated Disclosure rule, two forms must be provided to you three days before the scheduled closing date—the loan estimate and closing disclosure.

The amount of accrued interest and other closing costs are laid out in the closing disclosure form. You can see the loan amount, interest rate, monthly payments, and other costs and compare these to the provided initial estimate.

How Is a Mortgage Payment Calculated?

A mortgage payment is calculated using principal, interest, taxes, and insurance. If you want to find out how much your monthly payment will be there are several good online mortgage calculators.

When Do Mortgage Payments Start?

When you buy a home, mortgage payments begin on the first of the month after you have lived in the home for 30 days. If you buy a home in October, your first payment on your mortgage will be due on Dec. 1, even if you purchased your home on Oct. 1 or Oct. 31.

What Is Mortgage Insurance?

There are two kinds of insurance associated with a mortgage payment. The first one is property insurance, which protects the home and everything in it, more or less, from man-made and natural disasters. The second kind of mortgage insurance is PMI and if you bought your home with a downpayment of less than 20%, you will have to pay this insurance to protect the lender, if you suddenly can’t pay your loan back.

The Bottom Line

A mortgage is an essential tool for buying a house, allowing you to become a homeowner without making a large down payment; however, when you take on a mortgage, it’s important to understand the structure of your payments, which cover not only the principal (the amount you borrowed) but also interest, taxes, and insurance. It tells you how long it will take you to pay off your mortgage and how expensive it will be to finance your home purchase.

Fact checked by Yarilet Perez

Becoming a millionaire just doesn’t have the cultural cache it once did. To be sure, a million dollars remains a tidy sum and a worthy goal for your retirement or other savings. But to truly announce you’ve made it into the upper reaches of the nation’s moneyed elite, you need at least a billion dollars—nine zeros instead of just six.

Here’s what amassing that kind of wealth looks like for the average person using widely available investment strategies.

Key Takeaways

• Amassing $1 billion on an average salary alone would take more than 16,100 years.
• Compound interest significantly shortens the time required to amass a fortune, even with a modest interest rate.
• Investing to reach $1 billion needn’t be complicated; the S&P 500 outperformed billionaires from 2020 to 2024.
• An index fund investment strategy can result in a nest egg of $1 billion in 71 years.

Earning It

If you chase after a billion dollars solely with wages and no investments, you will have to work for a long time. According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, the average weekly earnings for a full-time worker in the United States was $1,192 per week in the fourth quarter of 2024. That comes out to $61,984 per year. Let’s say you have a second income to cover living expenses and decide to stash your $61,984 annual income under your mattress and make your billion that way.

You’ll have to work and stash your paychecks for 16,134 years before you make your first billion.

In addition to lots of time, you’ll need lots of space for your cash. A billion dollars in $100 bills will be stacked on 10 standard construction pallets, with each pallet being 48 inches by 40 inches.

You can speed things up if you move your money to a bank savings account that pays the current national average interest rate of 0.41%. In that case, you will have saved $1,000,000,000 in 1,029 years. Compound interest is as powerful as they say!

Saving for It

Since compound interest is so helpful, consider moving your annual wages into a high-yield savings account or a certificate of deposit (CD). The annual percentage yields (APYs) for these fluctuate with the economy’s health and the Federal Reserve’s responses. We’ll keep things simple and use the current best rates for a national high-yield savings account and a CD and assume those rates hold for the campaign’s duration. (In reality, they’ll go up and down, but it’s hard to predict how much, especially over generations of economic activity.)

Currently, the best jumbo CDs pay 4.55% in interest. (We chose a jumbo CD because yours will qualify as one in your second year of saving.) With your annual wage and that return, you’ll amass a billion dollars in 149 years.

Meanwhile, the best high-yield savings accounts pay 4.75% interest right now. You’ll only have to wait 144 years for your billion at that rate.

Investing for It

By now, you’re probably convinced that the key to getting a billion dollars is to take advantage of compound interest as aggressively as possible through investing. But not too aggressively. You decide to invest your annual wages into an index fund and choose Fidelity’s FXAIX, one of Investopedia’s top funds tracking the S&P 500. You’ll have broad exposure to the stock market without paying a lot in fees, and you won’t have to worry about rebalancing as the tracked companies’ fortunes rise and fall over time. The index fund’s managers will take care of all that for you.

Note

Can you beat the billionaires? Perhaps surprisingly, you can. From 2020 to 2024, aggregate billionaire wealth in North America grew by 58.5%, from $3.8 trillion to $6.1 trillion, according to the UBS Billionaire Ambitions Report 2024. Over roughly the same period, the S&P 500 index grew 78%, demonstrating the power of U.S. equities markets and the wisdom of index fund investing.

FXAIX has returned 11.02% since its inception in 1988. At that rate of return and annual contributions of $61,984, you will acquire your first billion in 71 years.

Strategy	Annual Investment	Interest Rate	Total Contributions	Total Interest Earned	Years	Total
Mattress	$61,984	0.00%	$1,000,049,856.00	$0.00	16,134	$1,000,049,856.00
Passbook Savings	$61,984	0.41%	$63,781,536.00	$939,679,759.76	1,029	$1,003,461,295.76
Jumbo CD	$61,984	4.55%	$9,235,616.00	$1,021,093,327.08	149	$1,030,328,943.08
High-Yield Savings	$61,984	4.75%	$8,925,696.00	$1,031,526,660.71	144	$1,040,452,356.71
S&P 500 Index Fund	$61,984	11.02%	$4,400,864.00	$103,635,073.19	71	$1,044,062,234.59

A whole lifetime is longer than most average wage earners have to invest, but what a wonderful legacy to pass on to your children or grandchildren! And if they continue to follow your prudent investment strategy, they will double their billion-dollar nest egg to $2 billion by year 78. And four years later (a total of 82 years of patient investing), it will have tripled to $3 billion. It’s true what they say: The first billion is the hardest to get.

What Is Investment Strategy?

Investment strategy is a set of principles designed to help an individual investor achieve their financial and investment goals. This plan is what guides an investor’s decisions based on their age, goals, risk tolerance, and future needs for capital.

What Is a Billionaire?

A billionaire is an individual who has a net worth of at least one billion units of currency, including dollars, pounds, or euros. A billionaire’s net worth can include personal and business assets like cash, cash equivalents, real estate, investments, and other assets.

How Many Billionaires Are There?

The United States had 813 billionaires—the most of any country in the world—worth a combined $5.7 trillion in 2024, the most recent data available, according to the annual Forbes World’s Billionaires List. Worldwide in 2024, there were 2,781 billionaires worth a combined $14.2 trillion.

The Bottom Line

Whether you have 71 years or 16,134, it is possible to become a billionaire like the well-known wealthy such as Elon Musk, Jeff Bezos, Bill Gates, and Warren Buffett.

Besides the above-mentioned investment strategies, other dos for becoming a billionaire include being a successful inventor, being an entrepreneur, and having a business innovation strategy. Don’ts include thinking you know it all, making flashy investments, and giving up too soon.

How they help the mortgage market and provide crisis relief

Reviewed by Julius Mansa

If you’ve ever taken out a mortgage, chances are Fannie Mae or Freddie Mac played a role—whether you realized it or not. They’re both government-sponsored enterprises (GSEs) that buy residential mortgages on the secondary market to hold or (more often) bundle and sell as mortgage-backed securities (MBS) to investors. This replenishes lenders with cash to issue further mortgages, injecting liquidity, stability, and affordability into the housing market.

Today, Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac back most of the country’s 51 million residential mortgages. However, the two entities have a checkered past. They have faced significant challenges, from the 2008 subprime mortgage crisis to the pandemic-era forbearances and moratoriums. To fully understand their role in the housing market, let’s explore why they were established, how they evolved, and their future.

Key Takeaways

• Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac are pivotal in the secondary mortgage market, buying and securitizing mortgages.
• They ensure a steady flow of mortgage credit, influencing interest rates and availability.
• Their government sponsorship includes an implicit guarantee and regulatory oversight by bodies like FHFA and HUD.
• They played significant roles during the 2008 financial crisis, leading to a government bailout and conservatorship.
• Their response to the COVID-19 pandemic involved measures to support homeowners and renters, impacting their financial health.

Historical Background

Before the 1930s, you typically had to put down 50% on a home mortgage and repay it in 10 years or less, making homeownership largely inaccessible. Then, to make matters worse, the Great Depression sent nearly 1 in 4 mortgages into default, triggering a housing crisis. 

Fannie Mae

In response, the federal government introduced a series of New Deal initiatives, including the Federal Housing Administration (FHA) that insures qualifying mortgages and the Federal National Mortgage Association (FNMA) that creates a secondary market for them. Chartered as a federal agency in 1938, the FNMA—soon to be known as “Fannie Mae”—initially bought, held, and sold only FHA-insured loans but began investing in VA loans in 1948.

In 1954, the Federal National Mortgage Association Charter Act converted Fannie Mae into a public-private, mixed-ownership corporation, exempting it from all state and local taxes, except real property taxes. Then in 1968, it was reorganized into a for-profit, shareholder-owned company and listed on the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE) while remaining under the regulation of the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD).

This marked the beginning of Fannie Mae operating with private capital while still benefiting from government support. The change aimed to reduce direct federal involvement in mortgage financing, allowing Fannie Mae to function more like a private financial institution while still providing long-term, fixed-rate mortgages. 

Freddie Mac

Two years later, the Emergency Home Finance Act of 1970 established the Federal Home Loan Mortgage Corporation (FHLMC) or “Freddie Mac.” It expanded the secondary mortgage market by purchasing mortgages from smaller savings and loan (S&L) associations. Furthermore, the law allowed both Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac to buy and sell non-government-backed mortgages for the first time.

After the savings and loan crisis of the 1980s, the Financial Institutions Reform, Recovery, and Enforcement Act (FIRREA) of 1989 restructured Freddie Mac as a for-profit corporation, leading to its listing on the NYSE alongside Fannie Mae. Since then, the two enterprises have served similar functions, with one main difference: Fannie Mae buys its mortgages mainly from major commercial banks, while Freddie Mac buys them from smaller thrift banks. 

Functions and Operations

Neither Fannie Mae nor Freddie Mac originate or service mortgages. Instead, they buy them off private lenders, who use the cash to extend even more loans, widening mortgage access.

However, the two government-sponsored entities only buy loans that meet their criteria for loan size, loan-to-value (LTV) ratio, debt-to-income (DTI) ratio, borrower credit score, etc. Loans that meet these criteria are called conforming loans. In 2025, the conforming loan limit is $806,500 in most of the U.S. and $1,209,750 in some high-cost areas like New York City and San Francisco.

After purchasing mortgages on the secondary market, Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac pool them into MBS and sell them to investors—especially large institutional buyers such as pension funds and insurance companies—which injects further liquidity into the mortgage market. Meanwhile, the two GSEs guarantee the principal and interest payments on the MBS, making them a relatively safe investment with a credit rating close to that of U.S. Treasuries.

Government Sponsorship and Regulation

Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac are unique entities in their company structure. Their close relationship with the federal government gives them access to lower borrowing costs and more investor confidence due to an “implicit guarantee.” Many assume the government will intervene before letting the GSEs default, even though there is no explicit guarantee. Case in point: During the late 1970s and early 1980s inflation and recessions, the federal government helped Fannie Mae recover from its financial losses with regulatory forbearance and tax benefits.

However, this government backing comes with strict government oversight. For example, the Federal Housing Enterprises Financial Safety and Soundness Act of 1992 created the HUD’s Office of Federal Housing Enterprise Oversight (OFHEO), which is now the Federal Housing Finance Agency (FHFA). It’s authorized to conduct routine safety and soundness examinations of the GSEs and enforce necessary changes. Furthermore, the HUD requires the GSEs to meet annual mortgage purchase goals and dedicate a portion of their loans to low- and moderate-income borrowers. 

Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac’s congressional charters made them Government Sponsored Enterprises GSEs. Though private, they had ties to the U.S. federal government that was thought to provide a financial backstop, with a line of credit from the U.S. Treasury for $2.25 billion. In September 2008, during the height of the financial crisis, they were placed under the direct supervision of the federal government.

During regular times, the government ties were less apparent but important. Each was a unique company unlike any other in the U.S. Here are some of the differences:

• The President of the United States appoints five of the 18 members of the organization’s boards of directors.
• The Secretary of the Treasury can buy up to $2.25 billion of securities from each company to support its liquidity.
• Their securities are considered “government securities” under the Securities Exchange Act of 1934.
• These securities did not have to be registered with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission.
• They could not originate mortgages, but they could buy them for securitization or investment purposes. In 2008, a year we’ll return to, the mortgage amounts were limited to $417,000, effectively closing them out of higher-priced real estate areas given their mission to target low—and moderate-income households.
• Both Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac are exempt from state and local taxes.
• The Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) and the Federal Housing Finance Agency (FHFA) regulate both companies.
• Should they face insolvency, this was not to be resolved through a bankruptcy process but by Congress.

The FHFA regulates, enforces, and monitors Fannie and Freddie’s capital standards and limits the size of their mortgage investment portfolios. HUD oversees Fannie and Freddie’s general housing missions.

Role in the 2008 Financial Crisis

In the years leading up to the 2008 Financial Crisis, Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac started investing in riskier loans, contributing to a housing bubble. In particular, they purchased large volumes of Alt-A mortgages, which had higher LTV and DTI ratios and often lacked full documentation of borrowers’ incomes. Furthermore, the GSEs bought private-label MBS collateralized by subprime mortgages, i.e., loans issued to borrowers with poor credit ratings.

When home values collapsed in 2007, defaults surged, and the MBS market unraveled. Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac lost billions of dollars on their portfolios and MBS guarantees, and investor confidence in them eroded. As their stock prices plummeted and insolvency loomed, the federal government intervened to prevent a wider economic fallout. 

In July 2008, Congress passed the Housing and Economic Recovery Act, establishing the Federal Housing Finance Agency (FHFA). Less than six weeks later, the FHFA placed Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac into conservatorship, effectively bringing them under government control. The U.S. Treasury then bailed out the GSEs with $190 billion through Senior Preferred Stock Purchase Agreements, requiring dividend payments in return. In 2010, both entities were delisted from the NYSE and began trading over the counter.

Since then, Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac have repaid the U.S. Treasury and returned to profitability but remain under conservatorship. 

In addition, Fannie Mae changed its business model. Instead of relying on income from its retained portfolio, it began generating most of its revenue by charging guaranty fees for ensuring the timely payment of principal and interest on MBS. As a result, its retained portfolio shrunk by 90% since 2010, and its revenue derived from guaranty fees went from less than 25% to over 80% of its total revenue.

Note

In September 2019, the U.S. Treasury and FHFA announced that Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac could start keeping their earnings to build up their capital reserves. The move was a step toward transitioning the two out of conservatorship. In early 2024, Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac had net worths of $77.7 billion and $47.7 billion, respectively.

Response to the COVID-19 Pandemic

The COVID-19 pandemic posed an entirely different set of challenges for Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac. With many Americans facing job losses and financial uncertainty, the federal government passed the CARES Act, introducing widespread homeowner protections. 

For example, federally-backed mortgages were granted the option to enter forbearance programs that paused or lowered mortgage payments for up to 180 days, with an option to extend for another 180 days—without late fees or penalties. Although 16% of mortgage holders used forbearance at some point between April 2020 and December 2021, most of them did it for three months or less. 

Meanwhile, federal and state-level moratoriums protected struggling borrowers and renters from losing their homes during the worst of the housing crisis. Under the CARES Act, lenders of federally-backed mortgages were prohibited from executing foreclosures until July 31, 2021. At the same time, the FHFA enforced more lenient lending and appraisal standards to help ensure buyers could still get into homes.

Naturally, the relief to federally-backed mortgage borrowers took a financial toll on Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac, which facilitated the effort with streamlined repayment plans, including deferred payments and extended loan terms. 

Current and Future Prospects

While Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac have since recovered from the COVID-19 pandemic, they remain under conservatorship. Some argue for privatizing the two GSEs to promote competition and shift risk away from taxpayers. However, others warn that privatization could lead to tighter mortgage credit, higher interest rates, and reduced support for low-income borrowers.

Privatization efforts have been proposed multiple times. In 2019, the first Trump administration released a Treasury plan outlining potential housing reforms, including an end to Fannie Mae’s and Freddie Mac’s conservatorships. However, this never materialized. 

Then in January 2025, the U.S. Treasury and the FHFA announced a framework to facilitate the orderly exit of Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac from government control, which involves soliciting public input and ensuring that the transition minimizes disruptions to the housing and financial markets. GSE share values jumped to multi-year highs at the news, reflecting investor optimism about the potential for privatization under President Trump’s second administration. However, President Trump has yet to propose a change, and some experts warn that ending conservatorship could take years, drive up interest rates, end the 30-year fixed-rate mortgage, and make the housing market more volatile.

For now, Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac play an important role in stabilizing the mortgage market and making it accessible to more Americans. 

Recently, the FHFA finalized its 2025-2027 housing goals for Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac, and according to the announcement, the GSEs must meet the following single-family loan benchmarks to support equitable housing access for low-income families and minorities:

Single-Family Goals (percentage of overall qualified single-family purchases)
Single-Family Goals	Benchmark Level 2025-2027
Low-Income Home Purchase	25%
Very Low-Income Home Purchase	6%
Minority Census Tracts Home Purchase	12%
Low-Income Census Tracts Purchas	4%

Moving forward, Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac will continue to be influenced by interest rates, inflation, and other economic and regulatory factors. For example, higher mortgage rates since 2022 have dampened homebuyer activity, reducing the volume of loans the GSEs can purchase and securitize. However, if rates decline, mortgage activity could rebound, benefitting GSE balance sheets. At the end of 2024, Fannie Mae’s net worth was nearly $95 billion (up 22% from 2023), and Freddie Mac’s net worth was nearly $60 billion (up 25% from 2023).

The Bottom Line

From the Great Depression to the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic, Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac have been instrumental in shaping the modern mortgage market. For better or worse, they support around 70% of U.S. home loans. In 2024 alone, Fannie Mae acquired $326 billion in single-family loans (up 3% from 2023), and Freddie Mac acquired over 1 million loans, repackaged into MBS totaling over $411 billion (up 18% from 2023).

With the federal government’s support, Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac have helped maintain a steady and reliable source of mortgage funding for individuals, families, and investors—both in economic downturns and periods of growth. Without them, Americans would likely face higher mortgage rates, shorter loan terms, and more difficulty buying homes. 

Use These Smart Planning Tips to Set the Stage for Your Loved Ones’ Futures

Fact checked by Vikki Velasquez
Reviewed by David Kindness

Everybody needs an estate plan, regardless of their age, state of health, or even the size of their assets. An estate plan ensures that your money and property go to the people of your choice while minimizing the impact of taxation. Having a plan also will help your heirs access their inheritance faster and more easily.

You have numerous options, and one of them should be the best for you and your family.

Key Takeaways

• Federal law allows an individual to inherit up to $13.610 million tax-free as of the 2024 tax year. For 2025, the maximum rises to $13.99 million.
• There is no limit to the tax-free status for the spouse of the deceased.
• People who inherit assets valued under the maximum do not usually have to file an estate tax return.
• Strategies to transfer wealth without a heavy tax burden include creating an irrevocable trust, engaging in annual gifting, forming a family limited partnership, or forming a generation-skipping transfer trust.

The Fundamentals of Wealth Transfer

Federal law provides an estate tax lifetime exemption that allows an individual to transfer up to $13.61 million tax-free to beneficiaries in 2024. The figure rises to $13.99 million in 2025.

This exemption could change significantly at the end of 2025 when the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act (TCJA) expires unless Congress agrees to extend the provision. The provision’s chances of an extension rose with the reelection of President Donald Trump, who signed it into law at the end of 2017.

Assets valued at more than the exemption amount can be taxed at a rate of as much as 40%. That rate has been in place since 2013.

The estate tax applies to everything you own at the time of your death, including partial interests in some assets, but not to the overall value of your assets, referred to as your gross estate. Your heirs are permitted to subtract mortgages, the costs of administering the estate, any gifts you give to charity, other debts you hold at the time of death, and anything you leave to your spouse.

Important

The Tax Cuts and Jobs Act (TCJA) nearly doubled the estate tax lifetime exemption when the law was passed in December 2017. The exemption could be cut to as low as $7 million when the TCJA expires at the end of 2025.

The Unlimited Marital Deduction

Federal tax law allows you to pass your wealth to your spouse with no limit. These transfers are completely tax-free whether they occur during your lifetime or when you die.

Of course, this exemption lasts only for the lifetime of the surviving spouse, whose heirs may face inheritance taxes on amounts exceeding the limit.

The Portability Rule

Another Internal Revenue Service (IRS) rule allows surviving spouses to reduce the impact of taxess on their heirs. The first spouse to die can transfer any unused portion of his or her own lifetime exemption to the survivor.

Let’s say the first spouse has died, passing on an estate that is valued at only half of the $13.61 million lifetime exemption. The surviving spouse can add the remaining $6.8 million to their own $13.61 million exemption for a total of $20.41 million under this portability rule.

The surviving spouse must file an estate tax return for the decedent to claim this right.

It’s worth noting that only Hawaii and Maryland offer portability for state-level estate taxes.

Ideally, both spouses are U.S. citizens because some restrictions apply otherwise. The IRS includes same-sex spouses provided that they’re legally married. It doesn’t recognize registered domestic partnerships or civil unions.

Tax-Efficient Ways to Transfer Wealth

Federal law provides a few other strategies to transfer your wealth without an undue tax burden if you are not married or want to leave a portion of your estate to others. 

Form an Irrevocable Trust

A trust is a legal entity set up by a grantor, usually the original owner of the assets it holds. The grantor funds the trust by transferring ownership of their property into its name or into the name of a trustee. The trustee is the individual or entity designated to oversee the trust upon the grantor’s death.

The assets that the trust holds don’t contribute to the grantor’s taxable estate.

One tax advantage to an irrevocable trust is that it can hold your life insurance policy. In that case, its value doesn’t contribute to the value of your taxable estate at the time of your death.

Moreover, any income earned by the assets held within the trust is taxed to the trust, not to the grantor, because the trust technically now owns the income-producing assets. This provides a benefit during your lifetime as well, easing your annual income tax burden.

The downside to an irrevocable trust is that, as the name implies, it can’t be amended, changed, or revoked by the grantor. It’s forever.

The grantor can’t reclaim the property they’ve placed into it. This is not the case with a grantor trust or revocable trust, which allows the grantor or creator to take back and reclaim assets placed into it or even dissolve the trust completely.

They can delete beneficiaries or add new ones without restriction.

Engage in Annual Gifting

You might prefer to simply give your wealth away during your lifetime, and the IRS has rules in place for this, too.

The gift tax is a separate level but it works in tandem with the estate tax. Gifting during your lifetime will decrease the value of your eventual estate because you’ve already given much of your wealth away, rendering your estate nontaxable. The IRS doesn’t want that to happen, so it imposes both taxes.

The tax code provides an annual gift tax exclusion of $18,000 per person per year for 2024, rising to $19,000 for 2025. You can give this much away, free of taxation.

Those numbers are more generous than they appear at first glance. The limit is for an individual, so multiple family members can get gifts.

“Take advantage of the gift-splitting provision,” advises Mike K. Earl, a certified financial planner and partner and director of The Wealth Group, Austin B. Colby & Associates in Minnesota. “For example, a married couple could give $36,000 to their son ($18,000 as a gift from each spouse). If this same couple’s son was married with two children, the couple could give up to $144,000 each year to their son’s family.” (Each spouse can give $72,000.)

You’re also granted a lifetime gift tax exemption, but unfortunately, it’s shared with the estate tax. Gifts that exceed the $18,000 yearly exclusion can be applied to your lifetime exemption so that the tax isn’t payable until your death, and they would then only be taxed if the total value of your estate and your lifetime gifts exceeds the annual estate tax exemption limit.

As with the estate tax, gifts made to your spouse or to charity don’t count against these limits. But lifetime gifts can subtract from the lifetime exemption if you do this, leaving less dollar-value protection for your estate.

The annual gift tax exclusion and the estate tax examption amount are adjusted annually for inflation.

Explore Other Gifting Options

Gifts made directly to a qualified educational institution or to a healthcare provider on behalf of someone other than yourself can be made tax-free.

Tuition and medical bills don’t apply against the annual gift tax exclusion, nor do gifts made to political organizations.

Form a Family Limited Partnership

A family limited partnership (FLP) provides joint ownership of family-owned assets to family members. Family members are either general partners or limited partners who assume varying (or no) responsibility for controlling the assets placed into the FLP’s ownership and managing its investments.

Parents and grandparents who donate their wealth and assets into an FLP then serve as partners who can transfer their partnership interests to other family members, including their children and grandchildren.

This can minimize or entirely dodge gift and estate taxes and protect assets from personal creditors, but the IRS does require that the partnership have a clear and definable business or investment purpose.

It must be created in such a way as to earn income of its own, and family partners must report that income on their own tax returns for income tax purposes.

“These structures can centralize family wealth management, provide some asset protection, and offer opportunities for tax-advantaged gifting through the use of valuation discounts,” says Celeste Robertson, a Texas-based estate planning and probate attorney with offices in Rockport and Corpus Christi.

Form a Generation-Skipping Transfer Trust

The generation-skipping transfer tax (GSTT) targets both lifetime gifts and estate bequests made to a person who is at least 37½ years younger than you, such as grandchildren or great-grandchildren you want to include in your estate plan.

The tax code provides for a generation-skipping transfer tax lifetime exemption as well. The maximum is $13.61 million for 2024 and $13.99 million for 2025.

The “skip person”—the individual who is two or more generations younger than the individual making the gift—must be the sole beneficiary of the trust and must have withdrawal rights to take advantage of the annual exclusion.

What Is the Most Tax-Efficient Way to Transfer Wealth?

The best strategy depends on the individual’s situation. Meeting with an estate tax lawyer or financial planner can help you determine the best way to pass on your wealth to your heirs.

What Are Some Strategies for Transferring Wealth?

One strategy is to give away some or all of your wealth over your lifetime rather than transfer it after your death. Or, you can create a generation-skipping transfer trust to provide for anyone who is at least 37½ years younger than you, such as grandchildren or great-grandchildren.

What Is the Greatest Wealth Transfer?

The greatest wealth transfer, as it has been called, is the process happening in the U.S. right now as the baby boom generation passes its wealth on to younger generations. Baby boomers are projected to leave their heirs, mostly millennials and Gen Xers, $84 trillion through 2045.

The Bottom Line

The federal gift and estate tax structure is currently generous enough to allow the vast majority of people to pass their wealth and assets to their loved ones tax-free.

You’ll still want to know and understand your options so you can properly plan for the future. Keep these taxes and options in mind as you plan your estate, and consider touching base with an attorney or tax professional who can guide you and keep you up to date with changes in the law.

It can give you an edge in a tight real estate market but there are downsides

Fact checked by Katharine Beer
Reviewed by Lea D. Uradu

“Cash is king,” goes the old adage. However, does that philosophy ring true when buying a home?

You may want to pay cash for your home if you’re shopping in a competitive housing market, or if you’d like to save money on mortgage interest. It could help you close a deal and beat out other buyers. However, there are downsides to not using a mortgage, such as the risk you take in tying up your funds in an illiquid asset. Learn when you should and shouldn’t pay for a home in all cash.

Key Takeaways

• Cash offers can give homebuyers an edge with motivated sellers eager to close the deal, or with sellers in tight markets where many bidders are competing for the same properties.
• Paying all cash for a home can make sense for some people and in some markets, but be sure that you also consider the potential downsides.
• The drawbacks include tying up too much investment capital in one asset class, losing the leverage provided by a mortgage, and sacrificing liquidity.

What Is the Process of Buying a Home with Cash?

The first step in buying a home with cash, not surprisingly, is coming up with the cash. Unless you happen to have that much money sitting in the bank, you’ll probably need to liquidate other investments and have the proceeds transferred into your bank account. Bear in mind that selling securities on which you’ve made a profit will trigger capital gains taxes.

A prospective seller may also ask for proof that you have the cash, such as your latest bank statement.

After that, the process is very similar to buying a home with a mortgage—except for having a mortgage lender looking over your shoulder. Once you’ve chosen a home that you want to buy:

1. Negotiate a price and sign a contract: Often referred to as a sales and purchase agreement, this contract will confirm the terms to which you and the seller have agreed. Sample forms are available online, from your real estate agent, or from your or the seller’s lawyer. You will want the contract to include a home inspection contingency so that you can get out of the deal or renegotiate the price if there’s anything seriously wrong with the property.
2. Hire a professional home inspector: This most likely would be mandatory if you were using a mortgage, but it’s also a very good idea if you’re paying cash.
3. Arrange for title insurance: Since no mortgage lender is involved, you won’t have to pay for lender’s title insurance. However, you will want owner’s title insurance. The title insurance company’s job is to search public records to verify that you’ll have clear title to the property that you’re purchasing—meaning that you own it free of any liens, claims, or disputes over whether the seller was the actual owner. Title insurance protects you against any problems that the title search might have missed. Whether you or the seller pays the one-time premium for this insurance is for you to negotiate.
4. Set up the closing: This is the meeting at which you and the seller will sign and exchange various documents to seal the deal. It may be held at the office of an escrow company hired by you or the seller to handle the necessary paperwork and register the sale with the proper authorities. Some title insurance companies also provide these services.
5. Fork over the cash: The closing is typically the point at which you pay the seller. This has traditionally required a cashier’s check from your bank but also may be done electronically these days.

Pros of Paying All Cash for a Home

Paying all cash provides advantages for homebuyers in competitive markets, and could provide some financial benefits, too.

You’re a More Attractive Buyer

A seller who knows that you don’t plan to apply for a mortgage is likely to take you more seriously. The mortgage process can be time-consuming, and there’s always the possibility that an applicant will be turned down, the deal will fall through, and the seller will have to start all over again, noted Mari Adam, a certified financial planner in Boca Raton, Fla.

Better Deal Possible

Just as cash makes you a more appealing buyer, it also puts you in a better position to bargain. Even sellers who have never heard the phrase “time value of money” will understand intuitively that the sooner they get their money, the sooner they can invest or make other use of it.

Avoid Mortgage Applications

After the housing bubble and the ensuing financial crisis of 2007–2008, mortgage underwriters tightened their standards for deciding who’s worthy of a loan. While they have loosened up somewhat since then, they are still likely to request substantial documentation even from buyers with solid incomes and impeccable credit records.

While that might be a prudent step on the part of the lending industry, it can mean more time and aggravation for mortgage applicants.

Other buyers have little choice but to pay cash. “We’ve had buyers who couldn’t get a new mortgage because they already have an existing mortgage on another house up for sale,” Adam said.

“Since they can’t get a new mortgage, they buy the new property with all cash. Once the old property sells, they may place a mortgage on the new property or perhaps decide to forgo the mortgage altogether to save on interest.” 

No Mortgage Payments

Mortgages are typically the largest bill that people have to pay each month, as well as the biggest burden if their income falls off due to a job loss or some other misfortune.

Years ago, homeowners would sometimes celebrate their final payments with mortgage-burning parties. Today, the average homeowner is unlikely to stay in the same place long enough to pay off a 30-year mortgage or even a 15-year one. In addition, homeowners often refinance their mortgages when interest rates fall, which can extend their loan obligations further into the future.

Mortgage-Free Retirement

If peace of mind is important to you, then paying off your mortgage early or paying cash for your home in the first place can be a smart move. That’s especially true as you approach retirement. Though considerably more Americans of retirement age carry housing debt than they did 20 years ago, according to Federal Reserve data, many financial planners and retirees see at least a psychological benefit in retiring free of debt.

“If someone is downsizing to a less expensive house in retirement, I generally advise them to use the equity in their current home and not get a mortgage on the new house,” said Michael J. Garry, a certified financial planner in Newtown, Pa.

Cons of Paying All Cash for a Home

Although there are pluses to buying a home in cash, don’t forget to consider the downsides.

Money Tied Up in One Asset Class

If the cash required to buy a home outright represents most of your savings, then you’ll be bucking one of the hallowed rules of personal finance: diversification.

What’s more, in terms of return on investment, residential real estate has historically lagged behind stocks, according to many studies. That’s why most financial planners will tell you to think of your home as a place to live rather than as an investment. 

Loss of Financial Leverage

When you buy an asset with borrowed money, your potential return is higher—assuming the asset increases in value.

For example, suppose you bought a $300,000 home that has since risen in value by $100,000 and is now worth $400,000. If you had paid cash for the home, then your return would be 33% (a $100,000 gain on your $300,000). However, if you had put down 20% and borrowed the remaining 80%, then your return would be 166% (a $100,000 gain on your $60,000 down payment). This oversimplified example ignores mortgage interest, tax deductions, and other factors, but that’s the general principle. 

Warning

Leverage works in the other direction, too. If your home declines in value, then you can lose more, on a percentage basis, if you have a mortgage than if you had paid cash. That may not matter if you intend to stay in the home, but if you need to move, then you could find yourself owing your lender more money than you can collect from the sale.

You Sacrifice Liquidity

Liquidity refers to how quickly you can take your cash out of an investment, if you ever need to. Most types of bank accounts are totally liquid, meaning that you can obtain cash almost instantly. Mutual funds and brokerage accounts can take a little longer, but not much. A home, however, can easily require months to sell.

You can, of course, borrow against the equity in your home, through a home equity loan, a home equity line of credit, or, if you’re at least age 62, a reverse mortgage. As Garry points out, however, all of these options have drawbacks, including fees and borrowing limits, so they should not be entered into casually.

How Common Are All-Cash Home Sales?

Just over 36% of single-family house and condominium sales were all cash in 2022, according to ATTOM Data Solutions. That’s the highest level since 2013.

How Much Can I Save if I Pay All Cash?

A study published in 2021 found that homebuyers with mortgages paid 11% more on average than those who paid all cash. But a lot will depend on the state of the housing market at any given time.

Can I Change My Mind Later and Get a Loan on a Home I Paid Cash for?

Yes, and you’ll have a variety of options to choose from. These include a mortgage with cash-out refinancing, a home equity loan or line of credit, or a reverse mortgage if you meet the age requirements.

Can I Get Cash from Securities Without Selling Them?

If you have investments in a brokerage account that allows margin loans for purposes such as buying real estate, then you may be able to borrow as much as 50% of their value without selling them. However, this is a risky move, especially if you don’t pay the money back quickly, such as by taking a mortgage on the home soon after you’ve completed the all-cash transaction.

The Bottom Line

Buying a home in all cash may save you money, both on the purchase price and in interest, and it could give you an edge in a competitive homebuying market. It also eliminates a big monthly bill when you don’t have a mortgage payment to make.

But before you draw down all of your savings to buy a house, consider whether you’d be better off keeping some of your funds liquid, investing the difference, and leveraging your mortgage to your advantage.