finance

Fact checked by Vikki Velasquez

Retiring at 45 with $500,000 is an ambitious goal. However, under the right conditions, it’s possible. If that is your intention, the sooner you start planning, the better.

Key Takeaways

• Retiring at 45 with $500,000 is possible but requires a well-planned financial strategy.
• To make it work, you need to keep a close eye on living expenses, especially healthcare costs.
• Safe withdrawal rates, like 4%, help ensure your portfolio lasts throughout retirement.
• You may need to supplement your retirement savings with passive or part-time income.
• Inflation and the tax efficiency of your portfolio also matter.

Step 1: Understanding Your Retirement Expenses

Let’s start on the expense side. In order to retire at 45 with $500,000, you have to understand what your monthly and ongoing expenses will be. A good starting point is to categorize expenses into fixed (e.g., rent, mortgage, property taxes) and variable (e.g., travel, entertainment, dining out).

Another thing to keep in mind is how expenses evolve over time. Healthcare costs tend to rise with age, and unexpected costs like home repairs may be more likely the longer they are delayed.

In 2022, the latest survey data is available, the Bureau of Labor Statistics found the total average household expenses for retirees was $54,975. Healthcare expenses were about $625/month, housing costs were about $932/month, and transportation costs were about $672/month.

Step 2: Understand the 4% Rule

The 4% rule is a commonly used guideline in retirement planning, suggesting that withdrawing 4% of your portfolio annually should provide financial security for at least 30 years. The guideline helps retirees understand the long-term implications of their drawdowns.

If applied to a $500,000 retirement balance, this would equate to a roughly $20,000 annual withdrawal. Looking back at Step 1, this would hardly cover half of the expenses of an average retiree. However, your expenses may be different. In addition, in the next step, we’ll look at ways to bridge any shortfalls.

Note

If you begin collecting Social Security at age 62, you’ll only be entitled to 70% of your benefit. If you wait until age 64, you’ll get 80%. If you wait until age 67, you’ll get 100%.

Step 3: Filling in Any Gaps/Shortfalls

Not all hope is lost if your expenses from Step 1 exceed the 4% rule guidance in Step 2. First, your portfolio can still grow in retirement. Let’s say you withdraw 4% of your $500,000 portfolio in your first year of retirement. If your portfolio generates a 10% market return, you’d end the year with $528,000. In theory, you’d be able to draw more next year, though these returns may not always be possible or guaranteed.

Another option is to consider other passive income opportunities. If you own your house, perhaps you can generate rental income. If you have specific talents, you can generate future royalties from intellectual properties. In this sense, you’d be retired but still collecting income to cover expenses from Step 1.

Yet another option is not a full-on retirement. Even earning a small amount can significantly improve your savings outcome. Assume a 3% inflation rate (which we’ll talk about later), a market that returns 7%, and a portfolio starting balance of $500,000. After 30 years:

• Withdrawing at a 6% rate would deplete the fund before 30 years. The “balance” at year 30 would be -$82,617.
• Withdrawing at a 4% rate would allow the fund to grow. The balance at year 30 would be $1,213,631.
• Withdrawing at a 2% rate would allow the fund to grow even more. The balance at year 30 would be $2,509,879.

A Note on Inflation

Inflation erodes purchasing power over time, meaning that a $500,000 retirement balance today won’t have the same value in 20 or 30 years. Discounted to its present value, $500,000 in 30 years is worth only about $206,000 in today’s dollars.

This is an underappreciated aspect of retirement planning. If you have a monthly expense of $100 today, that charge will be $134.39 ten years from now (assuming a 3% inflation rate). You need to be mindful of not only what your expenses will be but also how they increase year over year.

For instance, in 2024, due to a variety of reasons, the price of eggs rose 36.8%, much more than the 2.9% overall inflation from December 2023 to December 2024.

A Note on Tax Efficiency

Let’s also touch briefly on the tax efficiency, as not all $500,000 retirement balances are created equal. A Roth IRA is a tax-sheltered retirement vehicle that houses contributions that have already been taxed. Earnings grow tax-free, so very generally speaking, there’s usually no tax liability when withdrawing from that $500,000.

However, earnings are taxable in a traditional IRA. Let’s say half of your $500,000 is growth (not direct contributions) and your tax rate is 10%. This means $25,000 of your portfolio will go straight to taxes. Should your portfolio appreciate at all, those future earnings will also be taxable. Though retired, you may still be generating taxable income (under Step 3), bumping you into a higher tax bracket.

One very important note here: there are many eligibility rules for tax-advantaged account withdrawals. You likely won’t be able to pull earnings until 59½ years old, meaning you might have a roughly 15 year gap between when you retire and when a bulk of your savings may be available.

A Note on Medical Expenses

Even if you’re a very healthy 45-year-old, there are medical considerations to keep in mind. According to American House Senior Living:

• An individual between age 65 and 74 will spend an average of $13,000/year on healthcare.
• An individual between age 75 and 84 will spend an average of $23,000/year on healthcare.
• An individual 85 years old or greater will spend an average of $40,000/year on healthcare.

Perhaps partially due to inflation and partially due to needing generally more healthcare services in general, people are spending more on healthcare. A 2024 study by Fidelity revealed a 65-year old will spend twice as much on healthcare compared to what would have been spent in 2002.

The Bottom Line

Retiring at 45 with $500,000 is possible but requires careful planning. Start by knowing what your expenses will be and how they compare with the industry guidance of 4% annual drawdowns. You can also take steps to mitigate the impacts of inflation, increase the benefits of tax efficiency, and plan for escalating costs like healthcare costs.

Reviewed by Thomas Brock

There are a wide variety of markets in which one can invest money. The main markets are stocks (equities), bonds, forex (currency), physical assets, and derivatives.

Furthermore, within each of these types of markets, there can be even more specialty markets.

Key Takeaways

• The stock market allows investors to buy and sell shares of ownership in publicly traded companies.
• Governments, companies, and financial intermediaries use the debt market to issue debt instruments (including bonds) to raise capital.
• In the forex market, investors speculate on changes in the exchange rates between currencies.
• Physical asset investments are the purchase of assets such as metals, jewelry, real estate, and cattle.
• Derivatives are securities that derive their value from an underlying asset (stocks, interest rates, currencies, or physical assets).

Stocks

The market that is most familiar to the average investor is the stock market. This market allows investors to buy and sell shares of ownership in publicly traded companies.

Money is made in this market in two main ways. The first is through capital gains, in which the value of each share increases in value. The second is through dividends, in which companies pass on income to investors.

Bonds

The debt market is used by governments, companies, and financial intermediaries to issue debt instruments to raise capital. The debt issuers then make regular payments to debt holders in the form of coupon payments and, once the debt matures, pay back the principal on the debt.

The most common types of financial instruments issued in this market are:

• Bonds
• Bills such as Treasury bills (T-bills)
• Notes
• Certificates of deposit (CDs)

There are also more exotic types of debt, including mortgage-backed securities (MBS) and collateralized debt obligations (CDOs).

Foreign Exchange (Forex)

The forex market allows investors to speculate on changes in the exchange rates between currencies. Investors will purchase one currency by selling another in the hope that the currency they purchased goes up in value compared to the one they sold.

In this market, because the moves between currencies are generally small and investments are shorter-term, a lot of leverage is used. Some forex brokers allow leverage as high as 500:1, which means that you can control $500 for every $1 you invest.

Physical Assets

Investment in physical assets is essentially the purchase of assets such as metals, jewelry, real estate, cattle, and much more. In this market, investors hope that the price for which they can sell an asset is more than what they paid for it.

The risks and costs associated with this type of investment will differ with each type of physical asset. For example, there can be holding fees on gold, and if you own cattle, the cost of caring for them is considerable.

Derivatives

The last major type of investment is an expansion of all of the above types of markets. Derivatives are securities that derive their value from an underlying asset such as a stock, interest rate, currency, or physical asset.

Investors in these types of securities can go long or short on the underlying asset and can purchase either the right or obligation to purchase or sell it. As the value of the underlying asset changes, the value of the derivative changes as well.

The major types of derivatives are options, futures, or forwards.

What Are Some Values for Each Investment Option?

The market capitalization of U.S. stocks is expected to reach almost $55 billion in 2025. The United States issued $385.1 billion in long-term municipal bonds alone in 2023, the most recent data available. The foreign exchange (forex) market will be worth an estimated $838.54 billion in 2025. Total investment in physical assets is not available as a figure, but one report estimated global investment in real assets like infrastructure, natural resources, and real estate at around 25% of total investment portfolios in 2024. The global total value of derivatives outstanding was estimated at $729.8 trillion on June 30, 2024, the most recent data available.

What Are Some Safe Investments Among Each Investment Option?

Low-risk investments among stocks, bonds, forex, physical assets, and derivatives include preferred stock, CDs, Treasury securities (T-bills, T-notes, and Treasury Inflation-Protected Securities or TIPS), AAA investment-grade bonds, bond funds, and municipal bonds.

Which Investment Usually Has the Highest Returns: Stocks, Bonds, Forex, Physical Assets, or Derivatives?

The U.S. stock market is considered the source of the greatest returns for investors. It has outperformed all other types of investments over the past century. However, it’s important to note that those high returns depend on a long investment time horizon, as shorter investment periods carry greater risk due to the higher volatility of stock prices.

The Bottom Line

When choosing whether to invest in stocks, bonds, forex, physical assets, or derivatives, or some combination of them, the most important factor is your risk tolerance. As noted above, stocks generally carry the highest returns but come with higher risk. Bonds are traditionally considered more conservative with lower returns. Forex, physical assets, and derivatives can vary in risk depending on your investment strategy and market conditions.

Always do your research before picking your investments, and consider meeting with a financial advisor to determine the best mix for your situation.

Pay inequality has gradually lessened, but biases delay progress

Reviewed by Michelle P. Scott
Fact checked by Pete Rathburn

Women have not been paid equitably for their work, relative to men’s pay, for over a century. Laws have been passed in the U.S. prohibiting this type of discrimination, which has led to progress in closing the gender wage gap between men and women. But the results haven’t been equally felt by all women.

A substantial race-based income inequality exists in the U.S. primarily as a result of the intersectionality between the gender wage gap and wage gaps by race. LGBTQ+ people also face pay gaps.

These issues have come to the fore in early 2025 because several of President Donald Trump’s executive orders call for the dismantling of diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) programs in the public and private sectors.

Key Takeaways

• Women have typically earned less than men for doing the same type of work.
• Women of color, regardless of education, are often channeled to lower-paying jobs compared with White women operating at a similar skill level.
• LGBTQ+ individuals must also contend with the gender wage gap, in addition to facing a pay gap for their gender identity and/or sexual orientation.
• Though laws have been passed to address the gender wage gap, many factors and biases continue to enable its existence.

The Gender Wage Gap: A Long History

The wage gap between men and women has a long history. Those who know about Rosie the Riveter are likely well aware that during World War II, American women entered the workforce en masse, often into traditionally male-dominated fields, as men left to fight overseas. But this wasn’t the first great American war for which women stepped up to attend to needs on the home front.

During World War I many women took over for the men who fought in the “Great War.” When these new workers realized they were going to be paid less than a man for the same labor, several strikes ensued. During WWII demands for wage equality returned in force, with trade unions and women’s organizations becoming more heavily involved.

It took some 20 years for these demands to bear fruit with actual laws. The first was the Equal Pay Act of 1963, which included the requirement that men and women receive the same pay for “substantially equal” work in the same workplace. A year later Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 expanded on this legislative groundwork by banning compensation discrimination due to “race, color, religion, sex, and national origin.”

However, it took 46 years—and a Supreme Court dissent by Supreme Court Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg—before the passage of the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act in 2009, which provided that every discriminatory paycheck, not merely the employer’s initial pay decision, constituted a new discriminatory act for which the worker could file a claim and recover up to two prior years’ worth of back pay.

Understanding the Wage Gap

According to the “Cambridge Dictionary,” a wage gap is “the difference between the average pay of two different groups of people.” The gender pay gap, as defined by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, is “the difference between median earnings of men and women relative to median earnings of men.”

According to the latest U.S. Census data, women on average earned less than 83 cents for every dollar earned on average by men in 2023. That’s a 17-cent difference with a notable impact. Working women collectively earned nearly $1.7 trillion less than men in 2023, according to the National Partnership for Women & Families, which analyzed Census Bureau data.

Gender wage gaps can be attributed to a multitude of often-overlapping elements. For instance, although differences in education or geographic location do contribute to wage inequality, gendered pay gaps still persist in their absence. Additionally, many of the potential contributing factors that might seem independent of a worker’s gender—such as differences in experience or hours worked—can be the results of societal gender bias.

Traditional gender role expectations establish housekeeping and parenting as the primary responsibilities of women, which can leave them with fewer hours available to work and less industry experience than men. Benefits such as paid family leave and affordable childcare encourage mothers to return to work. But as of 2023 only 27% of civilian workers had access to employer-sponsored paid family leave. Additionally, persistent income inequality based on factors other than gender can limit which groups of women are able to afford services such as childcare.

Intersection of Race and Gender

The 17-cent wage gap isn’t experienced equally by all women; some women make even less as a result of additional discrimination against other demographic characteristics. In the fourth quarter of 2024, for example, Black and Latino/Latina women both had lower weekly median incomes than White women, with Latino/Latina women earning the least of any group. But Asian women had a higher weekly median income than White, Black, and Latino/Latina women for this period. They also earned more than White men, though women across all four of these racial groups earned less than men of their same race.

This wasn’t always the case. Between 2000 and mid-2019, although Asian women earned more than all other women, they had a lower weekly median income than White men. Asian men were the only demographic to earn more than White men in both the fourth quarter of 2024 and from 2000 to 2021.

These statistics, however, rely on average values and don’t paint an exact picture. For example, not all Asian American women earn more than White men: In 2022, for every dollar earned by White men, Filipino American women earned 79 cents, Native Hawaiian women earned 61 cents, Tongan American women earned 52 cents, and Nepali American women earned 48 cents.

Gendered Opportunity Gaps

Education reformers refer to an opportunity gap as “the ways in which race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, English proficiency, community wealth, familial situations, or other factors contribute to or perpetuate lower educational aspirations, achievement, and attainment for certain groups of students.” Outside of the education field, the same basic concept also applies to the obstacles workers face as a result of their demographic characteristics.

Teachers and other kinds of mentors often point to the importance of networking, which provides participants with a kind of social capital (i.e, a positive product of human interaction for a person’s career). Having friends, family members, or other social connections in high places typically makes securing job opportunities much easier. Because this social capital isn’t evenly distributed, it creates an opportunity gap.

Myriad other factors contribute to the overall opportunity gap. One of the more prominent is what’s known as “occupational segregation,” which is “a group’s overrepresentation or underrepresentation in certain jobs or fields of work,” as the Washington Center for Equitable Growth puts it. In 2020 the Center found that fields dominated by men tend to be higher-paying ones, regardless of skill or education level, a finding that was echoed in a 2024 study by the Federal Reserve Bank of Philadelphia.

Meanwhile, societal pressure and structural sexism may influence the career paths that some women take. In particular, Black and Latino/Latina women, regardless of education, are often concentrated in lower-paying jobs compared with White women operating at a similar skill level. For instance, a 2021 study by the Pew Research Center indicates that most women of color continue to have much lower representation in lucrative STEM careers.

In addition, sexism and misogyny still exist in the job market. Even though the Equal Pay Act made gender-based discrimination illegal, it can still be commonplace. Employers may continue to discriminate by relying on a person’s salary history during hiring, which perpetuates pay disparities. To thwart discrimination, 21 states in recent years have banned the practice of employers asking job candidates about their salary history.

If you believe that you are being paid less than your coworkers because of your race, color, religion, sex, national origin, age, or disability, you can file a complaint with the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC). The complaint process is detailed on the agency’s website.

Transgender and Nonbinary Wage Gap

In addition to facing discrimination for their gender identity and/or sexual orientation, LGBTQ+ individuals may also contend with wage gaps for their identities. The intersection of these two socioeconomic divides can result in unique circumstances for workers outside the gender binary. For instance, the Human Rights Campaign reports that transgender men and women made 70 cents and 60 cents, respectively, for every dollar the “typical worker” (e.g., the median wage for all workers in the United States) earns. Additionally, a 2008 study found that the average earnings for transgender women fell by approximately 32% after transitioning. Conversely, the average earnings for transgender men actually increased post-transition, albeit only by 1.5%.

Several transgender men in the same 2008 study reported gaining additional authority and respect at work following their transition. Other researchers found that transgender women had trouble maintaining employment, with more recent data indicating that many leave high-paying jobs for lower-paying ones due to workplace discrimination. Some transgender men, however, have reported having trouble being accepted at work, particularly if they lacked an “undisputed masculine appearance.”

The 2022 U.S. Transgender Survey found that more than one third (34%) of transgender individuals were experiencing poverty. It also found that 11% of respondents who had a job in the previous year were fired or forced to resign, lost the job, or were laid off due to their gender identity or expression. And the unemployment rate among the survey respondents was 18%.

The Human Rights Campaign also found that nonbinary, genderqueer, genderfluid, and two-spirit workers made 70 cents for every dollar the typical worker earns. In terms of the opportunity gap, a 2016 study found that nonbinary individuals assigned male at birth typically faced hiring discrimination, while those assigned female at birth more often experienced discriminatory treatment within their workplaces. Additionally, nonbinary people as a whole were more likely to have been denied a promotion, though they generally have fared better than transgender women.

Note

Research on the pay gap LGBTQ+ Americans face is relatively scarce, particularly when it comes to addressing diversity within the community, which is due in part to a lack of federally-collected data. The 2020 Census, for example, was the first U.S. Census Bureau survey to collect data on same-sex couples, but it only did so on those living together. This was the only question that addressed the LGBTQ+ demographic.

The Effect of Sexual Harassment

Although inappropriate sexual remarks and physical advances in the workplace are prohibited by Title VII of the Civil Rights Act, much like the wage gap itself, sexual harassment is still commonplace. Though experiencing it isn’t exclusive to women, it disproportionally affects them. The U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission found that approximately 83.7% of the 6,201 sexual harassment charges filed in 2022 were filed by women, compared with 16.3% filed by men.

Sexual harassment can not only emotionally harm a woman, it may also negatively impact her earnings. For instance, a fact sheet published in 2023 by the National Partnership for Women & Families found that women in workplaces where sexual harassment isn’t reported may be less comfortable negotiating salaries and raises. Incidents of sexual harassment in the workplace often go unreported due to fears of retaliation, termination, or inaction. In a 2018 Morning Consult survey, 46% of women who reported sexual harassment to their bosses or human resources departments were dissatisfied with the results.

Sexual harassment can affect job performance, workplace advancement, and career choices. Women who experience it in the workplace often report heightened anxiety and depression, which can affect productivity and overall performance. According to a 2019 report from the American Association of University Women, 38% of surveyed women experiencing workplace sexual harassment reported that it contributed to their decision to leave a job early, while a 2018 New America study found that it could push women out of entire industries, amplifying occupational segregation.

Additionally, women of color, LGBTQ+ women, and women with disabilities may face both greater financial consequences and an increased risk of retaliation, doubt, victim-blaming, and other prejudiced responses for reporting sexual harassment.

Gender Gaps on a Global Scale

Each year the World Economic Forum studies and indexes worldwide gender-based disparities as part of its annual Global Gender Gap Report. In addition to its overall assessment of wage and opportunity gaps, the 2024 Global Gender Gap Index comprises four comprehensive subindexes, each measuring a different type of gender disparity across 146 countries. These include:

• Economic participation and opportunity: This index measures wage equality between women and men for similar work, plus the difference in estimated earned income, labor force participation, and the number of professional and technical workers as well as legislators, senior officials, and managers between men and women. The economic participation and opportunity gap is the second largest, at 39.5%.
• Educational attainment: This index measures the difference in net primary, secondary, and tertiary enrollment rates as well as literacy rates between women and men. The educational attainment gap is the second smallest, at 5.1%.
• Health and survival: This index measures the difference in healthy life expectancy between women and men as well as the sex ratio at birth. The health and survival gap is the closest to closing, with only 4.0% remaining.
• Political empowerment: This index measures the difference between the number of women and men in parliament seats and at the ministerial level, as well as the number of years women have served as heads of state over the past five decades. The political empowerment gap is the farthest from closing, with 77.5% still remaining.

31.5%

The percentage of the overall global gender gap that has yet to be closed as of 2024.

Outside of topics that have already been covered in this article, these subindexes measure several additional gender discrepancies that aren’t always considered when discussing the wage gap, despite the socioeconomic impact they can have on the personal level and conditions that enable discriminatory income differences. For example, if women are denied a higher quality of healthcare, it may impact their ability to work should they become sick or injured. Additionally, it could prove difficult to enact effective legislative changes to reduce an income gap if those with political power benefit from the current status quo.

Although each country is given its own score, the global average values make it easier to quantify how the more abstract opportunity gaps have changed over time. Since 2006, the shift in political empowerment has jumped 8.3%. The only index that has declined in the same period is the health and survival index (-0.2 points).

What Is the Gender Pay Gap in 2024?

As of 2024, on average, women earn less than 83 cents for every dollar made by men. The gender pay gap has improved by 8 cents since 2015.

Why Is the Gender Pay Gap so Large?

While several laws have been passed that made gender-based pay discrimination illegal in the U.S., there are multiple factors that have allowed this type of wage gap to endure, such as conscious and unconscious discrimination and bias in hiring and pay decisions, higher rates of part-time work for women, and women and men working in different industries and jobs, with female-dominated industries and careers attracting lower wages.

What Country Has the Lowest Gender Pay Gap?

While no country has achieved full gender parity, as of 2024 Iceland’s economy (at 93.5%) has the lowest pay gap by gender and is the only one that has closed over 90% of its pay gap. It has led the Global Gender Gap Index for a decade and a half.

The Bottom Line

Although the gender wage gap has narrowed over the years, it will never completely close without coordinated efforts that address the many factors and biases that continue to enable its existence. Companies have to get involved in this by ensuring that all employees are being paid a fair wage for their labor and the workplace itself is a safe environment for all women.

Reviewed by Eric Estevez

To deleverage means to reduce the amount of debt that a company carries, usually by taking major steps quickly. It is the opposite of leverage, which refers to taking on debt to fund business goals.

Deleveraging is a term that comes to the forefront during and after times of economic turmoil, whether that’s a downturn, an all-out recession, or a depression. It can also occur due to company mismanagement.

It applies to businesses (and people) that try to clean up their balance sheets by reducing their debt. Thus, it can be very useful and important to U.S. corporations. Governments can also become involved in deleveraging.

What else does deleveraging mean to corporate America? To explain, it helps to start with leverage.

Key Takeaways

• Deleveraging occurs when a firm reduces its financial leverage (debt) by raising capital, selling off assets, and/or cutting spending where necessary.
• Deleveraging strengthens balance sheets because it rids a company of certain financial liabilities.
• Firms with so-called toxic debt can face a substantial blow to their balance sheets if the market for those fixed-income investments collapses. 
• When deleveraging affects the economy, the government may step in to buy assets and put a floor under prices, or to encourage spending. 
• Investors may be alarmed when a company has to deleverage because they may believe it failed to grow enough to pay its obligations.

What Is Leverage?

Leverage has become an integral aspect of our society. The term refers to borrowing money and using it to increase the possibility of a return.

Businesses use leverage to finance their operations, fund expansions, and pay for research and development (R&D).

By borrowing money to obtain capital rather than issuing more stock, businesses can pay their bills without diluting shareholders’ equity.

For example, if a company formed with an investment of $5 million from investors, the equity in the company is $5 million. This is money the company uses to operate.

If the company then borrows $20 million, the company now has $25 million to use as needed. It could invest in capital budgeting projects and other opportunities to increase value for the fixed number of shareholders.

Operating and Financial Leverage

There are two main types of leverage: operating leverage and financial leverage. Operating and financial leverage make income and profits more sensitive to business cycles.

This can be a good thing during periods of economic expansion and a bad thing during economic contraction. That’s because leverage equals debt which equals interest payments.

Interest payments can be handled well during healthy economic periods. But if the economy weakens and a company makes less revenue, interest payments owed to creditors could be hard to make.

What Is Deleveraging?

The old adage “everything in moderation” applies perfectly to the concept of leverage.

If companies incur too much leverage, or debt, they can run into trouble because of the excessive interest payments they face. That’s when deleveraging—getting rid of debt—comes into play.

Deleveraging occurs when a firm executes a strategy to pay off any or all existing debts.

To deleverage, a company can raise capital that it then uses to wipe off the debt from its balance sheet. Or it can sell assets to raise the money. It can also reduce its spending and apply the savings to its debt. But, as noted below, reducing spending may entail difficult choices and affect the lives of employees.

However, without deleveraging, an entity could default on its debt, as the financial burden may become unbearable.

Pros and Cons

For businesses, deleveraging has positive and negative aspects. On the one hand, deleveraging strengthens balance sheets by removing liabilities. And it can improve the financial ratios that investors use to gauge the financial health of a company.

Also, lenders will like what they see and be more likely to lend to the deleveraged company in the future.

It is a sound course of action to get a company back on track toward growth without owing too much money, if any.

On the other hand, deleveraging isn’t always pretty. To pay off its debt, a company needs extra cash. So it may have to lay off workers, close plants, slash R&D budgets, and sell assets. It may have to sell some part of its business at a less than optimal price.

Investors can become concerned about a company that failed to achieve enough growth to pay what it owed. And such efforts could affect the price of a company’s stock.

Important

Leverage and deleveraging both can be good for corporate America. Careful leveraging can provide funds needed to grow a business that aren’t obtained by diluting shareholder ownership. Deleveraging and paying off debt that’s become to much too handle supports the financial health of a company and appeals to investors.

Wall Street’s Response to Deleveraging

Wall Street generally greets successful deleveraging with a warm embrace. Announcements of massive layoffs can send corporate costs falling and share prices rising.

However, deleveraging doesn’t always go as planned. When the need to raise capital to reduce debt levels forces firms to sell off assets they don’t wish to sell at fire sale prices, the price of a company’s shares generally suffers in the short run.

In addition, when investors learn that a company has debts that it has become unable pay, they may decide that the company isn’t a good investment and sell their shares.

Toxic Debt and Deleveraging

Toxic debt is any debt that has little chance of being repaid (both principal and interest).

The inability to sell or service debt can result in business failure. Firms that hold toxic debt in the form of fixed-income securities issued by failing companies can face a substantial blow to their balance sheets as the market for those investments collapses.

Such was the case for firms holding the debt of the investment banking firm Lehman Brothers prior to its 2008 collapse.

The Deleverage Process for Banks

Banks are required to have a specific percentage of their assets held in reserve to help cover their obligations to creditors, including depositors that may make withdrawal requests.

They are also required to maintain certain ratios of capital to debt. To do so, banks deleverage when they fear that the loans they made will not be repaid or when the value of assets they hold declines.

When banks are concerned about getting repaid, as during the financial crisis, they slow down their lending. When lending slows, consumers can’t borrow money, so they are less able to buy products and services from businesses.

Similarly, businesses can’t borrow to expand, so hiring slows and some companies are forced to sell assets at a discount to repay existing bank loans.

The Deleverage Effect on Security Prices

If many banks deleverage at the same time, stock prices fall as companies that can no longer borrow from the banks are revalued based on the price of assets that they are trying to sell at a discount.

Debt markets may potentially crash as investors become reluctant to hold the bonds from troubled companies or to buy investments into which debt is packaged.

The Government and Deleveraging

When deleveraging creates a downward spiral in the economy, the government may be forced to step in. Governments take on leverage to buy assets and put a floor under prices, or to encourage spending.

For example, the government might:

• Buy mortgage-backed securities (MBS) to prop up housing prices and encourage bank lending
• Issue government-backed guarantees to prop up the value of certain securities
• Take financial positions in failing companies
• Provide tax rebates directly to consumers
• Subsidize the purchase of appliances or automobiles through tax credits

The Federal Reserve (Fed) can also lower the federal funds rate to make it less expensive for banks to borrow money from each other, push down interest rates, and encourage banks to lend to consumers and businesses.

Does Deleverage Apply to Individuals?

It can. If an individual borrows money that at some point they have trouble paying back, they may be forced to sell assets to raise funds to pay off large chunks of that debt, if not the entire amount at one time. Before selling one or more assets, they may also try spending less each month and apply the savings to their debt payments.

Is Deleveraging Good or Bad?

In general, it’s good if it is undertaken to alleviate a burdensome amount of debt, is successful at doing so, and prevents an even worse situation (such as bankruptcy). However, it’s important for a company to assess the factors that got it to the point where it had to deleverage.

Is Deleveraging an Extreme Measure?

Yes, a company that finds itself unable to make payments on the money it has borrowed usually has to take extreme steps to right its situation. The company must quickly come up with cash to pay off its debts. That can mean taking major steps such as selling company assets at fire sale prices, laying off workers, and issuing more shares of stock.

The Bottom Line

Deleveraging by corporations and other businesses involves executing a strategy to raise funds rapidly to pay off debt that has become burdensome.

In times of financial crises, the government may have to step up to buy certain amounts of this debt. But it can’t do so without restraint, as government debt must eventually be repaid by taxpayers.

Broadly speaking, it’s a good idea for the financial health of companies and the economy that the responsible parties in business and the government implement internal controls and policies to prevent future downward spirals and the need for deleveraging.

Fact checked by Vikki Velasquez

Many people downsize their living situation to simplify their lives when they retire. But your home isn’t the only thing you can downsize, and it isn’t even the only thing you can sell. Consider some of the ways you can de-clutter your home, streamline your financial portfolio, reduce your living expenses, and even make some extra cash to enjoy after retiring.

Key Takeaways

• Planning where you’ll live and whether to downsize your home is one of the biggest factors in planning for retirement.
• You can clear out the clutter and make extra cash by selling possessions you’ll no longer need like your work wardrobe, extra electronics, kids’ toys, and even your second car.
• Working with a financial planner can help you envision and plan for your retirement, including what you will and won’t need.

1. Your House

When you retire, the first thing you’ll need to decide is where you want to live. Whether you choose to relocate to a new city or stay where you are, you may want to consider downsizing as part of the process of preparing for retirement.

“Many times when people think about retirement, they think first about downsizing their house,” says Summer Broadhead, CPA, CFP, and a financial advisor at Everthrive Financial Group. “Maybe you want to move to a one-level or a smaller house. You might want fewer stairs or less to clean and maintain.”

Selling your house and moving into a smaller one can reduce your living expenses significantly, including your costs for:

• Property taxes
• Electricity, water, and other utilities
• Yard or garden maintenance
• Household repairs

Downsizing isn’t right for everyone. It might be something you choose to do later in retirement. However, Broadhead suggests paying attention to current market conditions if you’re considering downsizing in the future.

“Downsizing may not be an immediate need, but if the market is in your favor for either buying or selling, you might want to expedite the process to take advantage of that,” she explains.

2. Furniture

If you’re moving to a smaller house, you could be getting rid of a lot of furniture. While it’s quicker to simply drop everything off at the Goodwill, if you have furniture in good condition, it may make more sense to try to sell it first.

Try listing it on sites like Facebook Marketplace. If you have a local consignment store that sells furniture, you can take pieces there, particularly if they are vintage or antique items made from real wood or with upholstery in good condition.

While you’re at it, take a look at all of the decorative objects, collectibles, sets of china, tools, and other stuff you’ve accumulated over the years. Ask yourself if you’d rather be free of some of it.

However, if you’re selling furniture, don’t expect to make back what you paid for it unless it is a very popular vintage style or brand. Secondhand buyers are, first and foremost, looking for a deal.

3. Exercise Equipment

If you’re downsizing to a smaller home, you might not have room for your treadmill and exercise bike. Even if you’re staying put, you might want to consider selling your exercise equipment and investing in a gym membership.

Belonging to a gym can keep you active and social when work no longer takes you out of the house every day. Many also offer programs beyond exercise, such as classes on nutrition, cooking, healthy aging, and more.

To keep costs down, look for a health club that offers a senior discount. Some Medicare Advantage plans even cover the cost of a gym membership through the Silver Sneakers program.

“Doctor visits increase in retirement, so making it a priority to exercise regularly can reduce your expenses in the long term,” says Broadhead.

4. Work Clothes

If your workplace requires business dress, you have a closet full of blazers, suits, or separates that you won’t wear anymore. You might have spent a lot of money on these items of clothing. Luckily, good quality suits and separates can be sold to make back some of that money, even if they are pre-worn.

If you want to sell the clothing, you can use sites like eBay, Poshmark, or Mercari. If you have designer clothes, handbags, and accessories, you can sell them through a website like The Real Real. If you’d rather let other people do the selling, look for a local consignment store that accepts clothing.

Note

Any clothing you are trying to sell or consign should be clean and in good condition. Don’t try to sell anything that is ripped, stained, worn out, or otherwise damaged.

5. Extra Electronics

When you were working or had kids in the house, it was probably convenient to have spares of big-ticket electronics like laptops, tablets, televisions, desktop monitors, and smartphones. But once your nest is empty and you’ve retired, you probably don’t need all those electronics hanging around. You can clear some space and make a little extra cash by selling them.

Retailers like Costco and Best Buy accept some used electronics, usually paying you with store credit or gift cards. You can also use an online service like Decluttr, which allows you to mail in an electronic device and receive payment via PayPal or direct deposit.

6. Kids’ Toys

If you have an attic or basement full of kids’ toys, retirement is a good time to clear them out. (You can keep a few if you have grandkids.) Instead of tossing them, take some to a local children’s consignment store and see if you can make a little cash. Make sure the toys you try to sell are in good condition, with no broken or missing pieces.

7. Luggage

If you used to do lots of family travel, you probably have dozens of suitcases and other bags stored in your house. But if your kids have grown, you probably won’t ever need to use all of them at the same time. Keep a few options in different sizes. Then sell the rest at a consignment store, yard sale, or on eBay.

8. Unworn Jewelry

If you have jewelry pieces that you love or are particularly meaningful, keep them. But jewelry you don’t like or never wear can be worth cash.

Many jewelry and antique stores will buy secondhand pieces. You can also sell items online through websites such as Everything But The House or eBay.

Do some research before you list. Jewelry made with gold or precious gems should be taken first to an expert who can estimate its value. Even vintage costume jewelry can be valuable if it’s a collectible brand or style.

Warning

Have any pieces made with gold, platinum, diamonds, or other gemstones appraised before you sell them so you know how much they are worth.

9. Your Portfolio

Physical items aren’t the only thing you can sell when you’re ready to retire. While you shouldn’t sell off your entire portfolio of investments, you might want to consider simplifying it.

“Some people might want to downsize their portfolio or their responsibilities,” suggests Broadhead. “If you have rental properties, for example, you might want to sell that part of your portfolio so you have less to manage in retirement.”

10. Your Second Car

If you had two cars so you and your spouse could commute to work, you might find you don’t need both in retirement. If you live in a walkable area or a place with good public transit, retirement can be a great opportunity to sell your second car.

Selling one car won’t just bring in a good bit of cash. Sharing a car can save you money by reducing your fuel consumption, particularly if you start using other ways to get around. It will also lower your costs for:

• Car insurance
• Personal property tax
• Maintenance and repairs

The Bottom Line

Planning for retirement is an opportunity to simplify and downsize. Knowing what to let go of and what to hold onto can be a complicated and emotional process. It can also be richly rewarding, as you free yourself to transition to a very different lifestyle.

If you’re expecting to retire in the next decade, don’t wait to start making a plan. Talk to a financial advisor sooner rather than later about what that retirement will look like and what you might need to be comfortable and financially secure.

“The more you know your goals for retirement, the more able you are to identify the steps you need to take leading up to retirement,” says Broadhead. “The sooner you start planning, the more options you’ll have.”

Maximizing Returns with Small, Consistent Investments

Reviewed by Thomas Brock
Fact checked by Vikki Velasquez

The journey to building significant wealth over time doesn’t necessarily require a large upfront investment. A slow and steady strategy can be applied to the goal of building wealth in the stock market.

Investing just $100 monthly in stocks over 30 years can transform your financial future. You just need to be consistent and leverage the power of compound interest over the long term.

Key Takeaways

• Long-term investors can reap the benefits of compounding returns, as gains build off of previous gains.
• Investing a set amount monthly allows for dollar-cost-averaging, which has the effect of reducing your per-share cost basis.
• Coping with risks, such as market volatility and inflation, is essential for long-term investors.

The Power of Compound Interest

Compound interest has been called the eighth wonder of the world for good reason. When you invest $100 monthly in stocks, you’re earning returns on your entire balance, including the previous earnings your earlier contributions have made. This snowball effect leads to significant wealth accumulation over time.

The length of time your money remains invested plays a critical role in the compounding process. In the early years, most of your portfolio’s growth comes from your regular contributions and may even feel a bit slow and linear.

As time passes, the earnings generated by your past returns begin to accelerate.

By year 15, if you invest $100 monthly, your returns are generating significant earnings of their own. By year 30, these “earnings on earnings” often exceed your original contributions and are growing exponentially.

This is why starting early is so powerful. It gives your money more time to benefit from this exponential growth pattern.

Reinvesting Dividends

An investor can amplify the power of compounding by reinvesting dividends, interest, and other investment income back into buying more shares.

Consider what happens when you reinvest dividends from stocks: A company paying a 3% dividend yield is essentially sharing some of its profits with you as a part-owner of the business. If you own $10,000 worth of such stocks, you’d receive $300 in annual dividends.

Taking this as cash would give you some extra spending money, but reinvesting these dividends purchases additional shares of the stock. These new shares then generate their own dividends, creating a powerful cascade effect.

Over time, your reinvested dividends begin earning dividends themselves, potentially turning that same $10,000 initial investment into more than $24,000 over 30 years, assuming a 6% annual growth rate.

How Compound Interest Works in Practice

Let’s break down what happens when you invest $100 initially plus $100 monthly over 30 years, assuming a moderate average annual return of 6%:

• Year 1: $1,300 invested → Potential end value: $1,339
• Year 5: $6,100 invested → Potential end value: $7,082
• Year 15: $18,100 invested → Potential end value: $28,931
• Year 30: $36,100 invested → Potential end value: $98,026

The Rule of 72

Want to know how long it will take your money to double? Use the “Rule of 72” – a simple heuristic that investors have relied on for generations. Just divide 72 by your expected annual return rate to estimate the years needed for your investment to double.

For example:

• At 3% return: 72 ÷ 3 = 24 years to double
• At 6% return: 72 ÷ 6 = 12 years to double
• At 9% return: 72 ÷ 9 = 8 years to double
• At 18% return: 72 ÷ 18 = 4 years to double

This rule reveals why even small differences in return rates can have a huge impact over time. An investment earning 6% will double twice as fast as one earning 3%.

Historical Market Returns

Looking at historical data provides valuable context for estimating return scenarios over the long-run:

• S&P 500 (1928-2023): Average annual total return (with dividends reinvested) of approximately 10.1%
• Dow Jones Industrial Average (1928-2023): Average annual total return of about 9.7%
• NASDAQ Composite (1971-2023): Average annual total return of roughly 11.5%

However, these returns have not been consistent year-over-year. The stock market has experienced significant volatility, with some years up and some years down:

• Best year: +46.6% (S&P 500, 1933)
• Worst year: -47.1% (S&P 500, 1931)
• Typical range: -10% to +30% in any given year

These historical return comparisons demonstrate why many financial advisors recommend a diversified portfolio that includes multiple asset classes. While stocks have provided the highest long-term returns, they also come with higher risk and volatility.

Important

The time frame or investment horizon used to extrapolate past returns will vary depending on the specific period or years considered.

Potential Growth Scenarios

Let’s examine three different return scenarios over 30 years with annual compounding, starting with an initial $100 deposit and $100 monthly contributions:

Conservative (3% annual return):

• Total invested: $36,100
• Final value: $58,114
• Total gain: $22,014

Moderate (6% annual return):

• Total invested: $36,100
• Final value: $98,026
• Total gain: $61,926

Optimistic (12% annual return):

• Total invested: $36,100
• Final value: $308,197
• Total gain: $272,097

Practical Strategies for Saving $100 Monthly

Budgeting Tips to Find $100

• Cut one streaming service or subscription ($15/month)
• Brown bag lunch from home twice weekly ($40/month)
• Reduce utility costs through improved efficiency ($25/month)
• Skip three takeout coffees weekly and make it at home ($20/month)

Other strategies to find funds to invest include buying generic/store brands, buying in bulk, cutting coupons, and cooking at home.

Automating Your Investment Strategy

• Set up automatic transfers from your checking account to ensure consistent deposits
• Use your brokers automatic investment features and dividend reinvestment option to set-it-and-forget-it
• Automating regular investments takes advantage of dollar-cost averaging to reduce timing risk
• Review and rebalance annually or after sharp market moves

Risks and Considerations of Long-Term Investing

Market Volatility

While stocks have historically provided strong long-term returns, they can be volatile in the short term and even end the year down. The market has experienced significant drops in the past – and probably will again in the future – but historical data shows that maintaining a long-term perspective has typically rewarded patient investors.

Impact of Inflation

With historical inflation averaging around 2-3% annually, it’s crucial to consider how this affects your investment’s purchasing power. This is one reason why stocks, which have historically outpaced inflation, can be an effective long-term investment vehicle. During periods of high inflation, say 5% per year, if you earn 5% on your investments you effectively have earned zero in terms of real return.

Interest Rates

Interest rates directly and indirectly impact investment returns and market behavior. When central banks adjust rates, it creates a ripple effect throughout the economy and financial markets. Higher interest rates can reduce corporate profits through increased borrowing costs, with growth stocks often more sensitive to rate changes than value stocks.

Economic Cycles

Economic cycles, also known as business cycles, typically progress through four main phases that can span several years: expansion, peak, contraction, and trough. Understanding these cycles helps investors anticipate market movements and adjust strategies accordingly. Over the span of three decades, one might expect to experience several such cycles from trough to peak.

Global Events

In today’s interconnected world, global events and geopolitical risks can rapidly impact investment returns across all markets. Understanding these connections helps investors prepare for and respond to international developments that may persist over the next several decades, including increased globalization, climate change, and a shift to green energy.

Company-Specific Risks

Individual companies face unique risks that can significantly impact investment returns, regardless of broader market conditions. Holding a diversified portfolio that includes stocks of several industry sectors, size, geographic proximity, and years in business can help mitigate these risks. Buying and holding a passive investment in something like an S&P 500 index fund can be a cost-effective way to diversify.

While economic downturns and bear markets can be unsettling, they often create opportunities for long-term investors. Market history shows that downturns, though painful in the moment, are typically temporary setbacks in a longer upward trend. During these periods, your regular investments buy shares at reduced prices, which can enhance long-term returns when the market recovers. Think of downturns as temporary sales on quality investments. The key is maintaining perspective and staying committed to your investment strategy rather than reacting emotionally to short-term market movements.

Research on Historical Investing Returns

Research by Dr. Jeremy Siegel and John Bogle, the founder of Vanguard, looked back over a period of 196 years and compared the real returns of stocks, bonds, and gold. They found that if an investor had started around the year 1810 (the New York Stock Exchange was actually founded in 1817) and put $10,000 in gold, their inflation-adjusted portfolio would be worth just $26,000. The same investment in bonds would have grown to $8 million. However, had the investor picked stocks in 1810, he would have turned his $10,000 into $5.6 billion.

Stocks are still the big winner if you select a more realistic time frame; most investors have a 30- to 40-year horizon, not 200 years. Between January 1980 and January 2010, the average annualized growth rate of the S&P 500 was 8.15%. The Dow Jones averaged 8.81% over the same period, while the NASDAQ jumped 9.51% yearly. Bond returns averaged less than 3% between 1980 and 2010. The dollar had an average inflation rate of 3.30% per year between 1980–2010, meaning that $1,000 in a savings account in 1980 would have a real value of $2,646.31 in 2010.

The 30-year period between 1985 and 2015 was even stronger. The S&P averaged 8.73%, the Dow Jones averaged 9.33%, and the NASDAQ averaged an impressive 10.34% per year.

What Are the Tax Implications of Investing in Stocks for 30 Years?

Long-term investments (i.e., held over 1 year) are taxed at preferential long-term capital gains tax rates: 0%, 15%, or 20%, depending on your income. Using tax-advantaged accounts like Roth IRAs can help eliminate taxes on gains entirely. Regular rebalancing can also be used for tax-loss harvesting to offset realized gains.

What Are Smart Ways to Choose Stocks for Long-Term Investment?

A wise approach to choosing stocks for long-term investment focuses on fundamental strength rather than short-term market movements. Look for companies that have demonstrated staying power through multiple economic cycles, maintain healthy balance sheets, and hold strong competitive positions in their industries. These companies typically generate consistent cash flow and, ideally, share profits with stockholders through dividends or buybacks.

For many investors, though, the simplest and most effective approach is investing in low-cost index funds that track the broad market, providing instant diversification and reducing the risk of picking individual stocks.

What Are the Best Platforms for Automating Monthly Stock Investments?

Several mainstream investment platforms have made automated investing both easy and cost-effective. Fidelity and Vanguard, among others, are particularly well-suited for long-term investors, offering easy-to-use automatic investment plans and a wide selection of no-fee funds. Charles Schwab provides an excellent combination of fractional share investing and automation, making it perfect for small monthly investments. And, M1 Finance has revolutionized the space with its automated portfolio management and rebalancing features. Roboadvisors are another easy-to-use automated option that can be set up with automatic recurring deposits. The key is choosing a platform that aligns with your investment style and offers the specific features you need, whether that’s detailed research tools or a simple, hands-off approach.

What Are the Benefits of Dollar-Cost Averaging for Long-Term Investors?

Dollar-cost averaging takes the guesswork out of investing by establishing a routine of regular investments regardless of market conditions. Instead of trying to time the market perfectly, you invest the same amount each month (say, $100), naturally buying more shares when prices are lower and fewer when they’re higher. This systematic approach not only helps manage risk but also removes emotional decision-making from the investment process. Over time, this strategy tends to result in a lower average cost per share than trying to pick the perfect moment to invest.

The Bottom Line

Investing just $100 monthly in stocks over a period of 30 years could potentially grow to a significant sum, thanks to the power of compound interest and historical stock market returns. While there are risks to consider, a disciplined approach to regular investing, combined with a long-term perspective, can help build substantial wealth over time.

This retirement lifeguard has the funding to continue saving pension plans

Reviewed by Marguerita Cheng

The Pension Benefit Guaranty Corporation (PBGC) is a safety net for private-sector defined-benefit pension plans. This federal corporation was established by the Employee Retirement Income Security Act (ERISA) of 1974 to provide participants in plans covered by the PBGC with guaranteed “basic” benefits in the event that their employer-sponsored defined-benefit plans became insolvent.

Key Takeaways

• The Pension Benefit Guaranty Corporation (PBGC) insures many private-sector defined-benefit pension plans, but it does not cover defined-contribution plans such as 401(k)s.
• The PBGC is largely funded by premiums paid by defined-benefit plan sponsors.
• The PBGC covers both single-employer plans and multiemployer plans.
• To help financially at-risk multiemployer plans, the American Rescue Plan Act of 2021 has made special funding available through the PBGC.

How the Pension Benefit Guaranty Corporation (PBGC) Works

The PBGC’s job is to step in if an insured pension plan is not able to fulfill its obligations. It will then cover pension benefits at normal retirement age, most early retirement benefits, annuities for survivors of plan participants, and disability payments for those receiving such payments before the covered plan was terminated. The PBGC does not cover defined-contribution plans, such as 401(k)s or 403(b)s.

PBGC benefits are limited to certain maximums and may not pay as much as someone would have received had their pension plan remained in effect. In 2025, eligible participants can receive a maximum pension of $7,431.82 per month if they are 65 years old and elect to receive their pension as a straight-life annuity.

Early retirement reduces the insured benefit, while retirement after age 65 increases it. For example, the 2025 maximum benefit for someone who retires at age 45 is $1,857.96 per month, while for someone who retires at age 75, it is $22,592.73 a month. Again, this assumes that they take their benefit as a straight life annuity rather than a joint and survivor annuity, which would result in a lower amount.

The PBGC does not cover certain death and supplemental benefits. Also, if a defined-benefit plan is terminated within five years of being amended, benefit increases that resulted from the amendment may be only partially covered.

PBGC pension plans fall into two categories: single-employer, and multiemployer. The tax code defines a multiemployer plan as one in which more than one employer is required to contribute and that is maintained according to a collective bargaining agreement between one or more employee organizations or employers. It must also satisfy other Labor Department requirements. A single-employer plan is maintained by one employer, either through a collective bargaining agreement or unilaterally.

The PBGC only covers these private-sector plans, not government or military pensions. As of 2025, the PBGC insured defined-benefit pension plans covering approximately 31 million people.

How the PBGC Is Funded

While the PBGC is a federal agency, it is not funded with tax dollars. Instead, it is funded by premiums collected from defined-benefit plan sponsors, assets from defined-benefit plans for which it serves as trustee, recoveries in bankruptcy from former plan sponsors, and earnings from its invested assets. The flat-rate, per-participant annual premium for single-employer plans in 2025 is $106. For multiemployer plans, it is $39.

The PBGC’s funding has not always been sufficient, however. At the close of the 2005 fiscal year, for example, the PBGC was more than $23 billion in debt and on the verge of needing a taxpayer-funded bailout. To avoid that, Congress passed the Pension Protection Act (PPA) of 2006, which required pension providers to fully fund their defined-benefit plans.

The massive American Rescue Plan Act of 2021, passed in March 2021, included provisions to help the PBGC shore up multiemployer plans. Plans in serious financial difficulty can apply for special assistance through the PBGC. That financial assistance will be in a single, lump-sum payment calculated to cover the plan’s obligations through the year 2051. Unlike most other PBGC funding, the money will come from the government’s general tax revenues, rather than from insurance premiums.

When the PBGC Takes Over a Pension Plan

The termination of a defined-benefit plan is generally initiated by the employer, either as a standard termination or a distress termination. Under a standard termination, the employer must demonstrate to the PBGC that there are sufficient assets in the plan to pay all benefits owed to participants. A distress termination occurs when a plan is being terminated but lacks sufficient assets to pay its benefits.

In a distress termination, which often occurs in conjunction with bankruptcy, the PBGC will step in to take over the administration of the plan. The PBGC also may take over a plan if it determines that the plan will be unable to meet its obligations. There’s also an involuntary termination when PBGC steps in “to protect a pension plan or the pension insurance system.” In this case, the agency initiates the process and, as in a distress termination, assumes responsibility for paying benefits to retirees, “up to legal limits.”

During its 2024 fiscal year, the PBGC paid benefits of about $69.5 billion to about 1,215,000 plan participants.

Important

If your pension plan is terminated, then you should be notified by either your employer or the PBGC.

Notification Process for Plan Terminations

In the event of a distress termination or PBGC-mandated takeover, plan participants generally receive notification from the PBGC when it assumes trusteeship of the plan. The PBGC also publishes notices in newspapers to announce the takeover, but national media outlets generally cover the story only when major pension plans fail.

With a standard termination, the plan must provide participants with a written “notice of intent to terminate” at least 60 days before the termination date. The plan may make a lump-sum payment to participants or buy an annuity for them from an insurance company to provide future benefits. The PBGC oversees standard terminations by reviewing the plan to determine whether it has enough money to meet its obligations. If so, then the PBGC will approve the termination.

How to Check on Your Plan

If you are covered by a defined-benefit plan from a current or former employer, then its summary plan description (SPD) should tell you whether or not it has a pension guarantee from the PBGC. The employer or plan administrator also is required to provide you with a pension funding notice every year, to show how your plan is doing financially. Also, you can request a copy of the Form 550 annual report that your plan must submit to the government each year.

What Is the Pension Benefit Guaranty Corporation (PBGC)?

The Pension Benefit Guaranty Corporation is a federally established agency that protects the retirement benefits of millions of American workers with private-sector defined benefit pension plans.

How Does the PBGC Protect Pension Benefits?

The PBGC provides financial backing for pension plans that are unable to meet their obligations. When an employer declares bankruptcy or can no longer maintain a defined benefit pension plan, the PBGC assumes responsibility for payments, ensuring that retirees receive their pensions up to a guaranteed limit.

Which Pension Plans Are Covered by the PBGC?

The PBGC covers most private-sector defined benefit pension plans, including single-employer and multiemployer plans. Single-employer plans are traditional pension plans sponsored by individual companies, while multiemployer plans are collectively bargained plans covering workers from multiple employers within the same industry.

How Is the PBGC Funded?

The PBGC is funded through several sources, primarily insurance premiums paid by pension plan sponsors. It also generates income through investments, recoveries from terminated plans, and interest income.

The Bottom Line

The Pension Benefit Guaranty Corporation helps protect workers’ pensions when their employers can’t afford to pay them. It gets its funding from insurance premiums, investments, and recovered assets—not from taxpayers. While the PBGC guarantees some pension payments, it may not cover the full amount originally promised.

Fact checked by Michael Rosenston

For many people, the reliability of dividend or interest income is one of the primary benefits of investing. Like individual stocks and bonds, mutual funds can be a great source of dividend income. However, not all mutual funds pay dividends, so if generating regular dividend income is important to you, learn which types of funds pay the highest dividends.

Key Takeaways

• Mutual funds pool money from multiple investors to invest in a diversified portfolio of assets.
• Higher-paying mutual funds often invest in dividend stocks, bond funds, REITs, or utility funds, which focus on generating consistent income for investors.
• Funds that must distribute a significant portion of their taxable income, such as REITs, are also required by law to pay high dividends.
• Dividend stock funds focus on stable companies with a track record of paying dividends, while bond funds invest in interest-bearing securities, including high-yield “junk” bonds.
• Risks associated with high-dividend mutual funds include interest rate sensitivity where the value of the mutual fund goes down when rates go up.

Understanding Mutual Funds

Let’s very briefly touch on mutual funds. A mutual fund is a type of investment vehicle that pools money from multiple investors to purchase a diversified portfolio of stocks, bonds, or other securities. Managed by professional fund managers, mutual funds aim to provide investors with broad market exposure.

Compared to exchange-traded funds (ETFs), mutual funds typically trade only once per day at the fund’s net asset value. ETFs generally trade throughout the day (like a stock). Mutual funds can be actively managed or passively managed.

Mutual funds often have higher expense ratios due to active management fees, whereas ETFs generally have lower costs because many track an index. Mutual funds may also have minimum investment requirements, unlike many ETFs (beyond just the cost of one share of that ETF).

General Characteristics of Higher Paying Mutual Funds

Before touching on exact types of funds, let’s cover some general conditions that usually exist for mutual funds to pay higher dividends or distributions. These characteristics may not reside in every fund, but generally speaking, funds will pay higher dividends if they have:

• Regulatory Requirements: Certain types of funds pay high dividends because they have to. Certain funds must distribute most of their taxable income to shareholders as part of their tax-advantaged status. Without these required distributions, certain funds may be at risk of facing corporate taxes at the entity level.
• Stable and Predictable Cash Flows: Funds that invest in businesses with steady and reliable cash flows tend to pay higher dividends. Funds that focus on companies that provide essential services tend to have more stable cash amounts coming to the company, meaning they can payout greater amounts.
• Income-Oriented Investment Strategies: Similarly to the second bullet above, certain mutual funds are specifically designed to maximize income rather than capital appreciation. We’ll touch on this more in the last section, but you can generate wealth through dividends, by the value of your investment increasing via capital appreciation, or both.
• Compensation for Higher Risk: All else being equal, investments tend to reward investors by taking on risk with the promise of higher payouts. These may not always materialize, but investors do tend to look for additional or higher forms of compensation in exchange for carrying that extra risk.

Now, let’s look at specific types of mutual funds that tend to pay the highest dividends.

Dividend Stock Funds

For those who are primarily interested in generating regular dividend income but are willing to take on some risk for the chance at capital gains, dividend stock funds can be an excellent choice. These funds are focused on investing in stocks that have reliable track records of paying healthy dividends each year. Since paying dividends to shareholders is considered a sign of a company’s financial stability, many companies pride themselves on issuing increasing dividends each year.

Dividend funds are not focused on identifying the next Wall Street darling, unless it pays dividends, but all stock investments have the potential to increase or decrease in value based on market fluctuations and the performance of the issuing company. Though dividend funds are not focused on creating capital gains, the stock of a healthy company that pays significant dividends is likely to go up over time, potentially increasing the value of the fund.

Note

Understand that mutual funds that prioritize dividends may not grow in size. You’re more likely to get cash returned back to you as a dividend or distribution as opposed to its stock price going up.

Bond Funds

Unlike stock funds, distributions made by bond funds are the result of interest income generated by the bonds in the fund’s portfolio. The interest rate, or coupon rate, paid by a bond is influenced by many factors, including the credit rating of the issuing entity and national interest rates at the time of issuance. While the interest rates of bonds issued by very stable, creditworthy corporations and governments tend to mirror rates set by the Federal Reserve, less stable entities often offer bonds with higher rates because the risk they will default on their financial obligations due to insolvency is greater.

High-yield bond funds, therefore, invest in very low-rated bonds, called junk bonds, because they pay extremely high rates of interest to compensate investors for the increased risk of default by financially unstable issuing entities. Though the income from these types of funds can be substantial, it comes at considerable risk. Other less-risky bond funds make more moderate distributions but carry a much lower risk of loss.

Real Estate Investment Trust (REIT) Funds

Another potential mutual fund is a REIT. REIT funds invest in publicly traded real estate investment trusts, which are required by law to distribute at least 90% of their taxable income as dividends. These funds can hold a variety of real estate assets like commercial properties, residential housing, healthcare facilities, or industrial warehouses. Because of their income-focused structure, REIT funds often offer some of the highest yields among mutual funds.

However, REIT funds are sensitive to interest rate movements, as rising rates increase borrowing costs and can reduce demand for real estate. Additionally, economic downturns can negatively impact occupancy rates and rental income. This has a direct impact on cashflow which then effects dividend payouts.

Utility Funds

Utility funds invest in stocks of companies that provide essential services such as electricity, water, and natural gas. Because utilities can be considered an “essential”, these companies tend to have more stable revenues. These types of companies may be more likely to have more steady demand regardless of economic conditions.

Because of this stability, utilities can pay higher dividends. Additionally, utility stocks are considered defensive investments, meaning they may even perform better during economic downturns when other “non-essential stocks” might struggle. Also, utility companies are uniquely positioned to more aggressively pass along costs to customers (as opposed to more elastic industries).

A Note on Dividends vs. Capital Appreciation

As an investor, you can generate wealth through mutual funds that pay high dividends. You can then reinvest those dividends and take advantage of compounding.

On the other hand, wealth creation can also come through capital appreciation. Assets can increase in value over time, such as growth stocks, real estate, or equity funds targeting high-growth industries. Unlike dividend investing, where income is received regularly, capital appreciation strategies rely on buying low and selling high.

There’s no single best strategy, and each investor’s personal strategy may be different from others. Keep in mind that, if you prioritize dividends or cashflow, you may be sacrificing capital appreciation. This may be fine for your personal strategy, but if your goal is to maximize wealth generation, there may be more balanced strategies that generate more wealth in the long run.

Which Types of Mutual Funds Pay the Highest Dividends?

Mutual funds that pay high dividends focus on investments that generate consistent income, such as dividend-paying stocks, high-yield bonds, real estate investment trusts (REITs) often pay higher dividends (or higher distributions).

Why Do Some Mutual Funds Pay Higher Dividends Than Others?

Some mutual funds pay higher dividends due to the nature of their underlying investments. Funds that focus on certain types of investments may generate higher income because these securities are designed to distribute earnings to investors. Additionally, some companies, especially those in safer or more mature industries, prioritize returning cash to shareholders instead of reinvesting profits into growth.

What Are the Risks of Investing in High-Dividend Mutual Funds?

While high-dividend mutual funds provide regular income, they come with risks such as interest rate sensitivity, sector concentration, and dividend sustainability. Many of these types of funds may decline in value when interest rates rise as their dividends/distributions become less attractive to new fixed-income investments established at a higher rate.

How Often Do High-Dividend Mutual Funds Pay Distributions?

Distributions depend entirely on the fund itself; many may pay out quarterly, though some funds may pay out monthly or annually.

The Bottom Line

Certain types of mutual funds like dividend stock funds, high-yield bond funds, REITs, or utility funds may have higher dividends/distributions. Though these funds tend to be at greater risk for increasing interest rates, they can also make for an attractive investment option for retirees and income-focused investors.

Reviewed by David Kindness

Bad debts arise when borrowers default on their loans. This is one of the primary risks associated with securitized assets, such as mortgage-backed securities (MBS), as bad debts can stop these instruments’ cash flows.

The risk of bad debt, however, can be apportioned among investors. Depending on how the securitized instruments are structured, the risk can be placed entirely on a single group of investors or spread throughout the entire investing pool.

Key Takeaways

• Securitization is the process of structuring a non-liquid asset or group of similar assets into a security that is sold to investors.
• Securitization bundles many non-liquid assets, usually loans such as mortgages, into a security, which is sold to an investor who receives an income stream from the principal and interest payments on that loan.
• There are two types of securitized assets: those that come as pools and those that have tranches.
• In a pool securitization, investors are equal and share all of the risks. If the pooled security has bad debt, all investors may suffer financial loss.
• In a tranche securitization, the security is split into different levels (tranches) made up of assets with different risk profiles. Higher tranches carry less risk than lower tranches, meaning lower tranches have a higher risk of suffering losses on bad debts first.

Securitization

Securitization is the process of financially structuring a non-liquid asset or group of similar non-liquid assets into a security that can then be sold to investors. The MBS was first created by trader Lew Ranieri in the early 1980s. It became an extremely popular investment in the 1990s and early 2000s. The idea was that the new security could be sold on the secondary mortgage market, offering investors significant liquidity on an asset that would otherwise be quite illiquid. 

Securitization, specifically, the bundling of assets such as mortgages into securities, has been frowned upon by many as it contributed to the subprime mortgage crisis of 2007. However, the practice continues today.

Pools and Tranches

There are two styles of securitization: pools and tranches. Here’s how they affect the level of risk faced by investors.

Pools

A simple securitization involves pooling assets (such as loans or mortgages), creating financial instruments, and marketing them to investors. Incoming cash flows from the loans are passed onto the holders of the new instruments. Each instrument is of equal priority when receiving payments. Since all instruments are equal, they all share in the risk associated with the assets. In this case, all investors bear an equal amount of bad-debt risk.

Tranches

In a more complex securitization process, tranches are created. Tranches represent different payment structures and various levels of priority for incoming cash flows. In a two-tranche system, tranche A will have priority over tranche B. Both tranches will attempt to follow a schedule of payments that reflects the cash flows of the underlying loans or mortgages.

If bad debts arise, tranche B will absorb the loss, lowering its cash flow, while tranche A remains unaffected. Since tranche B is affected by bad debts, it carries the most risk. Investors will purchase tranche B instruments at a discount price to reflect the level of associated risk. If there are more than two tranches, the lowest priority tranche will absorb the losses from bad debts.

For a portfolio, investors can choose from securitization investments such as prime and subprime mortgages, home equity loans, credit card receivables, or auto loans. Investors can also choose an index.

Important

Tranches can be categorized incorrectly by rating agencies, where tranches are rated investment grade even though they include junk assets, which are non-investment grade.

Issuer Risk

In addition to investor risk, securitized assets also pose risks to the issuer. Along with credit and liquidity risk, which investors share, issuers also face capital, reputational, and operational risks.

If the securitized market is full of bad debt—as occurred during the subprime mortgage crisis—this can lead to significant capital risk if the bottom falls out of the market. Financial firms must have sufficient capital to cover their losses arising from credit or market shocks.

A negative reputation can severely impact a financial institution’s ability to acquire credit and customers. Due to the public’s prevailing negative perception of securitized assets, banks that engage heavily in the securitized market must have plans in place to counter the negative perception.

Securitized assets are complex financial products and, as such, require significant capital and operational knowledge to create and market. Financial firms that want to sell securities assets must have appropriate underwriting, collection, and monitoring processes and expertise to profit from these assets while also mitigating risks.

What Are the Major Risks Associated With Securitization?

There are four major risks associated with securitization; credit risk, interest rate risk, prepayment risk, and liquidity risk. Credit risk is the risk that investors will not recoup their investment, while interest rate risk refers to the risk that interest rate changes will affect the price of the securitized asset. Prepayment risk is the risk that the principal will be returned prematurely, leading to lost future income, while liquidity risk is the risk that investors will not be able to sell bad assets on the open market.

What Are Examples of Securitized Assets?

Securities assets are assets that pool together numerous financial products to create a new security. Examples include mortgage-backed securities, collateralized debt obligations (CDOs), and asset-backed securities (ABS).

How Does Securitization Work?

Securitization happens in several phases. First, loans are issued to consumers. Next, banks and other financial institutions pool those various loans into a trust. These assets are then securitized and sold to investors as a pool or in various tranches with various interest rates and risk profiles. Investors receive interest payments, and banks selling the assets receive cash flow, which they use to fund other projects and — eventually — pay back their investors.

The Bottom Line

Securitization is a way for investors to gain access to assets that they would otherwise not have the chance to do so, such as mortgages. It is also a way for companies to reduce their balance sheet and take on more business by selling off assets like mortgages.

Securitization is a way to receive a consistent income stream, though it can be risky as much information about the underlying assets is unknown, such as the case in the subprime meltdown. When bad debts occur in securitization, the loss is shared as there are multiple investors, however, depending on the type of securitization, the loss is shared equally as in pooled securitizations or at different levels as in tranche securitizations.

Fact checked by Vikki Velasquez

Florida has long been a magnet for retirees, and for good reason: The state offers a winning combination of natural beauty, lifestyle perks, and financial advantages for seniors. With year-round warm weather and world-class golf courses, beaches, and fishing spots, Florida offers retirees the chance to enjoy outdoor activities in every season. 

Popular retirement cities include Miami, which attracts retirees seeking a vibrant, multicultural atmosphere, and Sarasota, which appeals to those preferring a more laid-back coastal lifestyle. The Villages, one of America’s largest retirement communities, offers many amenities and social clubs for those seeking an active adult lifestyle. But regardless of which part you choose to live in, you’ll enjoy one of the most compelling reasons to retire in Florida: the state’s tax-friendly environment. 

Key Takeaways

• Florida offers significant tax benefits, including no state income tax and no inheritance tax.
• The cost of living can be higher in popular retirement cities but generally remains reasonable in many parts of the state.
• Florida’s climate is warm year-round but can also bring risks, such as hurricanes.
• The state has top-rated health care facilities, though accessibility can vary by location.

Cost of Living and Housing

Florida’s cost of living varies significantly by region, although recent years have seen sharp increases in housing costs across all regions.

As is the case in most states, living in a major metropolitan area is more expensive. For example, in Miami, housing prices exceed the national average. In Q4 2024, the median sales price in the U.S. was $419,200; in Miami-Dade County, the median sales price was $625,000. 

However, some coastal cities such as Jacksonville and Tampa offer home prices closer to or below the national median. In Tampa-St. Petersburg-Clearwater, the median listing price was $396,973 in January 2025; in Jacksonville, the median listing price was $385,000.

You can find even cheaper home prices if you’re willing to go inland—or move to a smaller community. The median listing price in Marion County was $303,575 in January 2025; in Alachua County, it was $334,700.

However, Carolyn McClanahan, a certified financial planner based in Jacksonville, warns that retiring to rural or smaller communities comes with tradeoffs.  

“The biggest complaint about the major retirement cities is that many retirees are snowbirds who leave in the offseason,” said McClanahan. “Between that and tourists, traffic and services in retirement cities can be feast or famine. Plus, long-term care services can cost more because there are more people to serve. However, rural areas have a very hard time delivering health and long-term care services, so I discourage retirees from moving to rural or small communities.”

While the state’s lack of income tax provides some relief, the median household income in Florida in 2023—$73,311—falls slightly below the national average of $80,610. Florida is also tied for seventh in terms of states with the greatest income inequality, according to data collected by Statista. This income disparity may be especially noticeable in popular retirement destinations, where an influx of wealthy retirees from higher-cost-of-living states has created pockets of affluence alongside populations of fixed-income retirees, who may struggle to keep pace with rising costs.

Note

Regardless of where you live in Florida, property insurance and utilities, particularly air conditioning costs, tend to be higher than national averages.

Florida housing prices–like housing prices across the country–have increased sharply since 2020. Many retirement communities and retirement-friendly metros are experiencing a housing crisis. Middle-income retirees, in particular, may find it challenging to find available housing in their price range.

Taxes

The state maintains a 0% state income tax rate, which means retirement income—including Social Security benefits, pension income, and distributions from retirement accounts, such as 401(k)s and IRAs—remain untaxed, effectively stretching retirement savings further. This law has cemented the state’s reputation as a tax haven for retirees.

This exemption means that retirees can withdraw from their retirement accounts without worrying about state-level tax implications. (Although, it’s important to remember that federal taxes still apply). For those with substantial retirement savings or pension benefits, these tax savings can amount to thousands of dollars annually compared to states that tax retirement income.

Tip

The absence of state income tax also extends to all forms of earned income, making Florida especially appealing to retirees working part-time or maintaining consulting businesses during retirement.

However, the state compensates for its lack of income tax through other revenue sources, which can impact retirees’ budgets. Property taxes vary significantly by county and can be substantial in highly desirable areas. Additionally, it’s worth noting the state’s general sales tax of 6% (which can reach 8.5% with maximum surtax) is above the national average.

While these costs don’t typically outweigh the benefits of zero state income tax, they should be carefully factored into retirement planning—especially for those on fixed incomes.

Climate and Weather

The southern region of Florida experiences a true tropical climate, while the north experiences subtle seasonal changes. Overall, the state enjoys warm temperatures year-round, with summer highs typically ranging from the mid-70s to the mid-90s Fahrenheit, while winter temperatures average between the mid-50s and mid-70s. 

Florida is especially vulnerable to climate-related risks, including hurricanes, flooding, and occasional tornado threats. As a result, homeowners face higher insurance costs in Florida, especially in coastal areas where hurricane insurance is essential. Insurance premiums have increased sharply in the state over the past few years. 

Warning

Many major insurance carriers have reduced their coverage in Florida or left the state entirely, leading to higher premiums from the remaining insurers.

Flood insurance, which is required in some coastal areas of the state, can add thousands of dollars to annual housing costs. Even inland, some properties may require flood insurance, depending on elevation and their proximity to bodies of water. 

Retirees may face additional expenses related to the climate, including the need for impact-resistant windows or hurricane shutters in many areas, increased maintenance costs due to salt air and humidity in coastal regions, and the potential need for backup power systems during outages. 

Health Care and Senior Services

Florida’s health care landscape reflects its large senior population, offering world-class hospitals, specialists, and outpatient facilities. Several nationally ranked hospitals are located in Miami, including the University of Miami Health System and Baptist Health South Florida. Moffitt Cancer Center and Tampa General Hospital serve the Tampa area. In Orlando, the AdventHealth system and Orlando Health both offer comprehensive medical services and specialized geriatric care units. 

Important

Keep in mind that wait times for new patient appointments can be longer in popular retirement areas due to high demand.

The state’s retirement communities have also evolved to include on-site health care delivery systems. These communities often feature integrated health care services, from primary care clinics to specialized rehabilitation facilities (at a cost). Additionally, Florida has developed an extensive network of assisted living facilities, skilled nursing homes, and memory care centers to accommodate varying levels of care. 

While the state’s overall health care costs tend to be lower than the national average in many areas, specialized care and certain medications can be more expensive. Medicare Advantage plans are widely available throughout the state, often with competitive premiums.

The state has also seen growth in concierge medical practices and specialized geriatric care centers, but these premium services often come with higher costs. For retirees with chronic conditions, Florida’s climate and health care infrastructure can be advantageous; there are numerous care centers for specific health conditions, including heart disease, cancer, and diabetes. 

The Bottom Line

Florida consistently ranks as one of America’s top retirement states because of its unique combination of financial, lifestyle, and health care advantages. For many, the state’s most compelling draw is its favorable tax structure, most notably its lack of state income tax. However, higher property taxes and insurance costs can offset these benefits—so consider your full financial picture before you commit to retirement in the Sunshine State.